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LOGGING 


THE 

PRINCIPLES  AND   GENERAL  METHODS 

OF  OPERATION  IN  THE 

UNITED   STATES 


BY 

RALPH   CLEMENT  BRYANT,  F.E.,  M.A. 

IklANTJFACTURERs'    ASSOCIATION   PROFESSOR   OF   LUMBERING 
YALE   UNIVERSITY 


SECOND  EDITION   THOROUGHLY  REVISED  AND  RESET 
TOTAX.  ISSUE,    SEVEN   THOUSAND 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,  Inc. 

London:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited 

1923 


Copyright,  1913,  1923, 

BY 

RALPH  CLEMENT  BRYANT 


Stanbope  iPrcss 

TECHNICAL  COMPOSITION  COMPANY 

F.  H.   GILSON   COMPAKY 

BOSTON,   U.  S.  A. 


TO 

THE  MEMBERS  OF  THE  NATIONAL  LUMBER  MANUFACTURERS' 

ASSOCIATION   IN   APPRECIATION   OF  THEIR   INTEREST 

IN   FORESTRY  EDUCATION 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND   EDITION 

The  marked  development,  during  the  past  decade,  in  power 
logging  machinery  and  methods  has  made  it  desirable  to  revise 
the  first  edition.  A  chapter  has  also  been  added  on  the  use  of 
crawler  tractors  in  logging  work  because  their  rapid  adaptation 
to  the  loggers'  needs  indicates  the  extensive  adoption  of  this  form 
of  equipment.  This  chapter  has  been  prepared  by  A.  Koroleff, 
a  Russian  forest  engineer,  who  has  spent  much  tune  in  studying 
the  use  of  this  kind  of  equipment  on  logging  operations  in  the 
United  States. 

The  subject  matter  has  been  rearranged,  in  part,  to  better 
meet  the  needs  of  the  teacher  and  student  and  much  of  the  text 
has  been  rewritten. 

Acknowledgment  is  here  made  to  those  whose  constructive 
criticisms  and  suggestions  relating  to  the  revision  of  the  first 
edition  have  proved  invaluable,  and  also  to  all  others  who  have 
aided  in  the  preparation  of  the  text. 

R.   C.  BRYANT 

New  Haven,  Conn. 
September,  1923. 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 

This  volume  has  been  prepared  as  a  text-book  for  use  in  Forest 
Schools,  The  subject  is  broad  in  scope  and  an  attempt  has 
been  made  to  cover  only  the  more  important  features  of  opera- 
tion; hence  the  innumerable  variations  in  equipment  and  method 
which  are  pecuUar  to  different  forest  regions  are  not  included. 
Of  the  many  minor  industries  related  to  logging,  only  two  of 
the  more  important  are  treated,  turpentine  orcharding  and  tan- 
bark  harvesting. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  and  costly  features  of  a  logging  opera- 
tion is  the  movement  of  the  timber  from  the  stump  to  the  manu- 
facturing plant  and  the  chief  facilities  and  methods  for  doing  this 
are  discussed  at  length,  especially  logging  railroads.  The  greatest 
emphasis  is  laid  on  features  about  which  there  is  not  much  written 
material  available,  while  engineering  subjects  such  as  road  surveys 
and  the  measurement  of  earth-work  and  rock-work  are  omitted 
because  they  are  treated  in  numerous  other  text-books. 

In  preparing  this  volume  the  author  has  consulted  freely 
many  of  the  Imnber  trade  journals,  especially  The  Timberman 
and  the  American  Lumberman;  the  various  publications  of  the 
U.  S.  Forest  Service;  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  Gillette; 
articles  in  numerous  periodicals,  especially  the  Forestry  Quar- 
terly; and  unpublished  nianuscripts. 

Many  of  the  photographs  and  drawings  are  original;  the  others 
have  been  secured  from  various  sources  and  credit  for  them  has 
been  given  whenever  their  origin  was  known.  The  data  on 
timberland  ownership  are  from  a  report  on  the  Lumber  Industry 
by  the  Bureau  of  Corporations  of  the  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Labor.  The  log  rules  in  the  Appendix  were  taken  chiefly 
from  the  Woodsman's  Handbook,  by  Graves;  two  tables  of  cubic 
contents  are  from  the  Forestry  Quarterly,  and  one  from  the  Manual 
for  Northern  Woodsmen,  by  Cary. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  all  who 


viii  PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 

have  aided  him  in  any  way  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume, 
particularly  to  Prof.  Samuel  J.  Record,  who  assisted  in  the  cor- 
rection of  the  manuscript. 

R.   C.  BRYANT 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
April,  1913. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 
GENERAL 


Page 

Chapter  I.     Forest  Resottrces 3 

Forest  Area  of  United  States 3 

Stand  of  Saw  Timber  in  United  States 4 

Ownership  of  Saw  Timber  by  Regions 4 

Commercial  Species 6 

Chapter  II.     Logging  Methods 22 

Summary  of  Logging  Methods 24 


PART  II 
PREPARING  LOGS  FOR  TRANSPORT 

Chapter  III.     Forest  Labor 41 

Length  of  Employment 41 

Character 42 

Methods  of  Employment  and  Payment 42 

Payment  for  Services 49 

Factors  which  influence  Wages 50 

Efficiency 51 

Unions 53 

Organization 56 

Medical  Attention 58 

Chapter  IV.     Camps 60 

Camp  Location 60 

Types  of  Camps 61 

Boarding  Department 71 

Camp  Hygiene 73 

Chapter  V.     Woodworker's  Tools  and  Equipment 82 

Axes 82 

Saws 83 

Power  Felling  Machines 90 

Power  Log-making  Machines 90 

Wedges 91 

Mauls  and  Sledges 92 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

Page 

Spring  Boards 92 

Kilhig  or  Sampson 93 

Tree  Faller .* 94 

Gun  Stick 94 

Measuring  Sticks 95 

Peavey 96 

Cant  Hook 96 

Pickaroon 97 

Undercutter 97 

Use  of  Kerosene 97 

Chapter  VI.     Felling  and  Log-Making 98 

Season 98 

Deadening 100 

Direction  of  Fall 100 

Organization  of  Crews 101 

Cutting  Areas 104 

Notching ' 105 

Felling 106 

Stump  Heights 107 

Log-making 108 

Waste  in  Log-making 113 

Barking  or  Rossing 116 

Sniping 117 


PART  III 
LAND   TRANSPORT 

Chapter  VII.     Transportation 121 

Secondary  Transportation 123 

Primary  Transportation 126 

Chapter  VIII.     Animal  Draft  Power 129 

Oxen 129 

Horses 131 

Mules 132 

Rations 132 

Water  Requirements 134 

Chapter  IX.     Skidways  and  Storage  Sites 136 

Log  Storage  in  the  Forest 136 

Chapter  X.     Hand  Logging  and  Animal  Snaking 144 

Hand  Logging 144 

Snaking  with  Animals 145 

Snaking  Equipment 149 

Crews  and  Daily  Output 153 


CONTENTS  XI 

Page 

Chapter  XI.     Sleds  and  Sled-IIauli^g 157 

The  Go-devil , 157 

The  Lizard * 158 

Yarding  Sleds 158 

The  Bob .' 161 

The  Jumbo 161 

The  Two-sled 161 

Sled  Roads 164 

Log  Haulers 178 

Chapter  XIL     Wheeled  Vehicles 184 

Two-wheeled  Vehicles 184 

Wagons 189 

Traction  Engines  for  Wagon  Haul 196 

Motor  Trucks 198 

Chapter  XIIL     Tractors 204 

Chapter  XIV.     Power  Skidding 214 

Cableway  or  Overhead  Skidding  System 214 

The  Snaking  System 229 

The  Slack-rope  System 232 

Swinging  and  Roading 245 

Fuel  Requirements 249 

Spark  Arresters 251 

Electric  Drive 252 

Chapter  XV.     Aerial  Tramways 255 

Chapter  XVI.     Timber  Slides  and  Chutes 262 

Types 262 

Grades 271 

Curves 272 

Operation 273 


/ 


Chapter  XVII.     Forest  Railroads 278 

Pole  Roads 278 

Stringer  Roads 281 

Steel-rail  Roads 283 

Advantages  of  Railroad  Transportation 283 

Choice  of  Gauge 285 

Rights-of-way 286 

Location 287 

Chapter  XVIII.     Railroad  Construction 293 

Clearing  the  Right-of-way 293 

Fills  and  Cuts 294 

Movement  of  Earth 297 


Xll  CONTENTS 

Page 

Rock  Excavation 304 

Blasting 304 

Explosives 306 

Stump  Blasting 311 

Timber  Work 313 

Track  Supplies 322 

Steel  Laying  and  Removal 326 

Chapter  XIX.     Inclines 334 

Chapter  XX.     Motive  Power  and  Rolling  Stock 341 

Locomotives 341 

Hauling  Ability  of  Locomotives 346 

Fuel  for  Locomotives 349 

Spark  Arresters 350 

Water 352 

Cars 352 

Narrow  Gauge 352 

Broad  Gauge 353 

Rolling  Stock  and  Motive  Power  Equipment 356 

Chapter  XXI.     Loading  and  Unloading  Cars 360 

Loading  Cars 360 

Special  Loading  Devices 366 

Unloading  Log  Cars 372 


PART  IV 

WATER   TRANSPORT 

Chapter  XXII.     Floating  and  Rafting 383 

Disadvantages 383 

Requirements  for  a  Driveable  Stream 387 

Dams 389 

Sluice  Gates 393 

Log  Carriers 398 

Improvement  of  the  Stream  Bed  and  Banks 398 

Storage  and  Sorting  Facilities 402 

The  Drive 407 

Log  Marks  and  Brands 409 

Species  that  float 412 

Labor 413 

Conduct  of  the  Drive 414 

Rafting  on  Streams 419 

Ocean  Rafting 427 

Log  Barges 430 

Sunken  Logs 430 


CONTENTS  Xlii 

Page 

Chapter  XXIII.     Flumes  and  Log  Sluices 433 

Type  of  Box 433 

Trestles '.  .  .  438 

Terminals 441 

Location 442 

Construction 445 

Operation 447 

Appendix 

Bibliography 455 

Terms  used  in  Logging 469 

Logging  Camp  Kitchen  Utensils 521 

Animal  Rations 525 

Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards 525 

Dry  Matter  and  Digestible  Food  Ingredients 526 

Rations  fed  to  Animals 528 

Weight  of  Feeding  Stuffs 529 

Index 531 


PART  I 
GENERAL 


LOGGING 


\/ioRl 


CHAPTER  I 


OREST  RESOURCES 

The  original  forested  area  of  the  United  States  was  822,238,000 
acres  and  contained  approximately  5,200  billion  board  feet  of 
timber.  The  present  area  is  about  463,461,000  acres  and  the  total 
stand  is  estimated  to  be  2,215  billion  board  feet.  The  original 
and  present  areas,  by  regions,  are  shown  in  Table  I  and  the  pres- 
ent estimated  volume  of  saw  timber  in  each  region  is  shown  in 
Table  II. 


Table  I 
FOREST  AREA  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES   BY 


REGIONS! 


Region 

Area 

Original 

Per  cent 
of  total 

Present 

Per  cent 
of  total 

Total 

822,238,000 
38,908,000 
69,610,000 
103,680,000 
170,560,000 

170,240,000 
128,400,00a 

100.00 
4.73 

8.46 
12.60 
20.75 

20.75 
15.61 
7.75 
9.35 

463,461,000 
24,708,000 
28,678,000 
57,100,000 
56,682,000 

99,000,000 
78,865,000 
60,842,000 
57,586,000 

100.00 

New  England 

Middle  Atlantic 

Lake 

5.33 
6.20 
12.32 

Central 

12.23 

South   Atlantic   and 
East  Gulf.... 

21.36 

Lower  Missis.sippi 

17.02 

Rocky  Mountain 

Pacific  Coast 

63,720,000 
77,120,000 

13.12 
12.42 

1  Based  on  data  from  "  Timber  Depletion,  Lumber  Prices,  Lumber  Exports,  and  Concen- 
tration of  Timber  Ownership."  Report  on  Senate  Resolution  311.  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1920. 

The  region  west  of  the  Great  Plains  has  less  than  26  per  cent 
of  the  total  forested  area,  yet  it  contains  61  per  cent  of  the 
timber  remaining  in  the  United  States.     The  New  England  and 

3 


LOGGING 


Middle  Atlantic  regions,  in  which  nearly  one-third  of  the  lumber 
produced  in  this  country  is  consumed,  contain  only  4  per  cent 
of  the  saw  timber  while  the  entire  area  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 

Table  II 
STAND  OF  SAW  TIMBER  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  REGIONS^ 


Region 

Saw  timber 
area 

Total  saw  timber 

Softwood.^ 

Hardwoods 

Thousands 
of  acres 

Million 
board  feet 

Per 
cent 

Million 
board  feet 

Million 
board  feet 

Total    

249,652 
10,761 

11,455 
24,030 
30,451 

46,200 

41,035 

41,059 
44,661 

2,214,893 
49,799 

44,857 
110,110 
144,470 

220,577 

280,908 

223,141 
1,141,031 

100 
2 

2 
5 

7 

10 

13 

10 
51 

1,755,218 
38,480 

15,353 
40,760 
11,318 

130,827 

148,308 

223,141 
1,141,031 

459  675 

New  England. . 
Middle  Atlan- 
tic       

Lake 

11,319 

29,504 
69  350 

Central 

South  Atlantic 
and  East  Gulf 

Lower  Missis- 
sippi   

Rocky    Moun- 
tain 

133,152 
83,750 
132,600 

Pacific  Coast.  . 

'  Data  from  Senate  Resolution  311. 

tains,  which  consumes  nearly  90  per  cent  of  the  lumber  output 
of  the  country,  has  only  39  per  cent  of  the  saw  timber. 
The  ownership  of  the  saw  timber  is  shown  in  Table  III. 

Table  III 
OWNERSHIP  OF  SAW  TIMBER  BY  REGIONS  (millions  of  board  feet)' 


Tota 

Federal 

State  and 
Municipal 

Region 

Total 

National 
Forest 

Private 

Eastern 
United  States 
Rocky  Moun- 
tains  

Pacific  Coast 

850,721 

223,141 
1,141,031 

8,184 

157,618 
434,300 

4,184 

145,449 
348,000 

10,000 

9,791 
39,000 

832,537 

55,732 
667,731 

Total 

2,214,893 

600,102 

497,633 

58,791 

1,556,000 

'  Based  on  data  contained  in  Senate  Resolution  311. 

Private  interests  control  70.3  per  cent  of  the  total,  the  Federal 


FOREST   RESOURCES  5 

Government  27.1  per  cent  and  states  and  municipalities  2.6  per 
cent.  A  Bureau  of  Corporation  report'  states  that  approximately 
46  per  cent  of  the  private  holdings  are  in  the  Pacific  Northwest, 
29.1  per  cent  in  the  southern  pine  region,  4.5  per  cent  in  the  Lake 
States  and  20.4  per  cent  in  other  regions. 

The  ownership  of  the  timber  lands  in  the  Pacific  Northwest 
is  concentrated  in  a  comparatively  few  hands.  Three  interests 
in  1913,  the  date  of  the  report,  controlled  11  per  cent,  eight 
holders  15.6  per  cent,  twenty-two  holders  20.8  per  cent,  and  one 
hundred  and  ninety-five  holders  38  per  cent  of  the  total  private- 
ly owned  stumpage  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  South  the  holdings  have  not  been  so  large  because  the 
stand  of  timber  per  acre  is  lower  than  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and 
there  have  not  been  the  large  land  grants  which  were  common 
in  the  West;  consequently  the  timber  has  been  held  by  a  greater 
number  of  companies.  Twenty-nine  interests  owned  16  per  cent 
of  the  total  standing  timber  in  the  region;  sixty-seven  holders, 
24  per  cent;  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  owners,  33  per  cent;  and 
five  hundred  and  fifty-eight  holders,  approximately  50  per  cent. 
The  sixty-seven  largest  interests  controlled  39  per  cent  of  the 
longleaf,  19  per  cent  of  the  loblolly  and  shortleaf,  29  per  cent  of 
the  cypress  and  11  per  cent  of  the  hardwood  stumpage.  In 
1912  it  was  estimated  that  only  1,200,000  acres  of  yellow  pine, 
containing  18,000,000,000  board  feet  were  not  held  by  manu- 
facturers. ^ 

In  the  Lake  States,  six  interests  controlled  54  per  cent  of  the 
white  and  Norway  pine  stumpage,  16  per  cent  of  other  conifers 
and  2  per  cent  of  the  hardwoods,  and  thirty-three  interests  con- 
trolled 77  per  cent  of  the  white  and  Norway  pine. 

The  timber  in  other  regions  is  di\aded  among  many  owners, 
controlling  a  limited  acreage.  Few  holdings  in  the  Northeast 
aggregate  more  than  100,000  acres. 

The  chief  logging  regions  previous  to  1870  were  the  New  Eng- 
land and  Middle  Atlantic  States,  but  about  1880  the  Lake  States 
showed  a  larger  production  than  any  other  section.     Although 

1  See  The  Lumber  Industrj%  Part  I,  Standing  Timber.  Bureau  of  Cor- 
porations, Dept.  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  Washington,  1913. 

2  Estimat<»  by  James  D.  Lacey  and  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois.  See  Official 
Report  Tenth  Annual  Convention  National  Lumber  Manufacturers'  Asso- 
ciation, May  7  and  8,  1912,  p.  94. 


6  LOGGING 

they  still  ranked  first  in  1899  a  rapid  decline  soon  began  and  the 
center  shifted  to  the  southern  states  which  have  ranked  first 
since  that  time,  although  the  output  on  the  Pacific  Coast  is  rapidly 
approaching  that  in  the  South.  Before  the  close  of  the  next 
decade  the  center  of  production  will  move  to  the  West  Coast 
wliich  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  reserve  supply  of  saw  timber 
in  this  country. 

COMMERCIAL   SPECIES 

Softwoods  comprise  approximately  71  per  cent  of  the  total  saw 
timber  in  the  United  States,  61  per  cent  of  which  is  found  in  the 
Pacific  Coast  forests.  Douglas  fir  represents  the  largest  volume 
of  softwoods,  namely,  34  per  cent,  southern  yellow  pine  14.6 
per  cent,  western  yellow  pines  14.2  per  cent,  western  hemlock 
5.4  per  cent,  the  true  firs  5.4  per  cent  and  redwood  4.1  per  cent. 
The  remainder  is  represented  by  many  species  of  which  western 
white  pine,  sugar  pine,  western  red  cedar,  lodgepole  pine,  western 
spruce,  eastern  spruce  and  eastern  hemlock  are  the  more  impor- 
tant from  the  standpoint  of  volume. 

The  commercial  hardwoods  are  all  found  in  the  eastern  forests, 
and  among  them  oak  is  the  most  important  representing  33  per 
cent,  birch,  beech  and  maple  16.3  per  cent,  and  red  gum  9.6  per 
cent.  The  remainder  includes  many  species  among  the  more 
important  of  which  are  chestnut,  hickory,  cottonwood,  ash  and 
yellow  poplar. 

The  stand  by  species  and  by  regions  is  shown  in  Table  IV. 

SOFTWOODS 

Douglas  fir.  —  This  species  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  also  known 
as  Oregon  pine,  is  the  most  important  tree  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
from  which  lumber  is  produced.  The  largest  manufacturing 
plants  are  located  on  Puget  Sound,  the  Columbia  River  and  har- 
bors along  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  Washington  and  Oregon.  A  major 
part  of  the  log  supply  for  these  mills  is  carried  by  railroads  to 
tide  water  or  to  large  streams  where  it  is  rafted  and  towed  to  the 
manufacturing  plants.  The  lumber  is  marketed  locally,  in  the 
prairie  regions  both  west  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  an 
extensive  market  is  being  developed  along  the  Altantic  Seaboard, 
shipments  coming  chieflj^  via  the  Panama  Canal.  The  export 
trade  also  provides  an  outlet  for  a  relatively  large  volume  of  lumber 


FOREST  RESOURCES 


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8  LOGGING 

which  is  shipped  to  Europe,  Asia,  the  South  Sea  Islands  and  the 
western  coast  of  South  America. 

y^'Douglas  fir  grows  in  dense,  ahiiost  pure  stands  in  the  Pacific 
Coast  region  yielding  an  average  of  from  35,000  to  00,000  board 
feet  of  merchantable  timber  per  acre,  with  from  150,000  to  250,000 
feet  in  the  better  stands.  Single  trees  have  scaled  60,000  feet. 
The  maximum  reported  yield  per  acre  of  Douglas  fir  is  585,000 
feet.     This  timber  grew  on  the  north  shore  of  Puget  Sound. 

The  cut  of  Douglas  fir  in  1920  was  6,960,000,000  board  feet. 

Southern  Yellow  Pine.  —  There  are  three  species  of  yellow  pine 
of  commercial  importance  in  the  southern  region;  namely,  long- 
leaf  {Pinus  palustris),  shortleaf  (P.  echinata),  and  loblolly  {P. 
tceda).  The  lumber  manufactured  from  them  is  often  marketed 
under  the  trade  name  of  southern  yellow  pine,  although  it  is 
customary  for  manufacturers  in  the  longleaf  region  to  sell  all 
species  under  the  name  of  "  longleaf,"  while  in  parts  of  Arkansas 
and  Louisiana  loblolly  is  marketed  as  "soft  shortleaf."  In  the 
Coastal  Plain  region  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  where  loblolly 
predominates  the  product  is  sold  under  the  trade  name  of  "North 
Carolina  Pine."  In  some  of  the  large  eastern  markets  like  New 
York  and  Philadelphia  southern  yellow  pine  often  is  sold  under 
the  trade  name  of  "longleaf,"  or  of  "shortleaf,"  the  distinction 
being  based  on  the  physical  character  of  the  wood.  The  term 
longleaf  is  applied  to  timbers  and  lumber  having  narrow  annual 
rings,  while  coarse-grained  lumber  is  called  shortleaf. 
I  Longleaf  is  preferred  for  timbers  and  flooring  when  maxi- 
mum strength  or  wearing  quality  is  desired,  while  loblolly  and 
shortleaf  are  used  chiefly  for  finish  and  for  general  construction 
purposes. 

The  annual  production  of  yellow  pine  reached  its  maximum  in 
_1909.  Operators  estimate  that  many  of  the  largest  mills  will 
be  cut  out  during  the  next  ten  years. 

The  yellow  pine  forests  are  now  the  source  of  most  of  the  lum- 
ber consumed  in  the  South,  and  much  of  that  used  in  the  prairie 
regions  of  the  Middle  West.  Southern  yellow  pine  products 
are  also  shipped  to  New  England,  Canada,  nearly  all  countries 
of  Europe,  to  many  parts  of  eastern  South  America  and  to  the 
West  Indies.  They  also  have  been  the  chief  source  of  the  rail- 
road lumber  supplies  of  the  East  and  South. 

The  longleaf  forests  for  many  years  have  furnished  a  large 
part  of  the  world's  supply  of  naval  stores. 


FOREST   RESOURCES^  \) 

The  manufacture  of  by-products,  such  as  pulp,  and  products 
of  distillation  from  mill  waste  and  forest  refuse  is  growing  in 
importance. 

Longleaf  grows  chiefly  in  pure  stands  which  run  from  5000  to 
25,000  board  feet  per  acre;  shortleaf  which  seldom  exceeds  6000 
feet  per  acre  occurs  with  hardwoods  on  richer  soils;  virgin  lob- 
lolly in  southern  Arkansas  is  associated  with  shortleaf  in  nearly 
pure  pine  forests  ranging  from  5000  to  30,000  feet  per  acre,  the 
former  comprising  from  60  to  80  per  cent  of  the  total  stand. 
The  average  stand  over  large  areas  does  not  exceed  10,000  feet. 
In  the  Coastal  Plain  region  the  second-growth  forests  of  loblolly 
average  from  5000  to  6000  feet  per  acre  with  a  maximum  of  15,000 
feet.  The  choicest  longleaf  stumpage  is  found  in  Calcasieu 
Parish  in  southwestern  Louisiana.  Logging  has  become  more 
intensive  during  recent  years  and  loggers  now  get  from  three 
to  five  times  more  timber  per  acre  than  formerly. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1920  was  11,091,000,000  board  feet. 

Western  Yellow  Pine.  —  Western  yellow  pine  {Pinus  ponderosa) 
is  one  of  the  more  important  merchantable  species  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region.  Its  market  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  territory 
in  which  it  grows  where  it  is  used  for  general  construction  purposes 
and  for  mining  timbers. 

The  stand  in  the  Sierras,  where  it  grows  in  mixture  with  sugar 
pine,  Douglas  fir,  incense  cedar  and  firs,  ranges  from  2000  to 
22,000  board  feet  per  acre  with  an  average  of  about  8000  feet.  In 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  it  ranges  from  3500  to  15,000'  feet  per 
acre  and  in  the  Black  Hills  of  North  Dakota  about  6,000  feet. 
Maximum  stands  of  40,000  feet  per  acre  have  been  reported. 

The  cut  of  western  yellow  pine  for  1920  was  2,290,000,000 
board  feet. 

White  Pine.  —  White  pine  {Pinus  strobus)  is  of  less  importance 
in  our  lumber  markets  than  formerly.  Its  manufacture  is  now 
chiefly  confined  to  the  state  of  Minnesota  which  contains  the 
greater  part  of  the  remaining  stumpage. 

Intensive  utilization  is  practised,  because  of  the  high  value 
of  the  better  grades  of  lumber  and  the  extensive  demand  for  low 
grades  for  box  board  material  for  which  this  species  is  especially 
adapted. 

The  virgin  stands  of  white  pine  in  Michigan  averaged  from 
10,000  to  75,000  board  feet  per  acre,  although  a  yield  of  25  000 
feet  was  considered  good. 


10  LOGGING 

The  cut  of  eastern  white  pine  is  decreasing  each  year,  the 
records  for  1920  showing  a  total  of  1,500,000,000  board  feet. 

Western  white  pine  {Pinus  monticola)  grows  in  Idaho,  Mon- 
tana and  Washington  and  is  now  being  substituted  in  the  mar- 
kets for  eastern  white  pine.  This  timber  is  sold  largely  outside 
of  the  home  territory,  because  Douglas  fir  and  other  woods  can 
undersell  it  in  the  local  markets. 

The  tree  rarely  occurs  in  pure  stands,  but  is  associated  with 
western  larch  (Larix  occidentalis),  western  red  cedar  {Thuja 
plicata)  and  other  firs  {Abies  sp.).  It  reaches  its  best  develop- 
ment in  Idaho,  where  in  mixed  stands  of  the  above  species  rang- 
ing from  25,000  to  70,000  board  feet  per  acre  it  comprises  from  60 
to  70  per  cent  of  the  total.  An  occasional  acre  contains  130,000 
board  feet.     A  single  tree  has  yielded  29,800  board  feet  of  lumber. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1919  was  297,421,000  board  feet. 

Hemlock.  —  There  are  two  species  now  on  the  market  known 
as  eastern  hemlock  {Tsuga  canadensis),  and  western  hemlock 
{T.  heterophylla) . 

It  is  only  within  the  last  thirty  years  that  eastern  hemlock 
has  been  regarded  as  of  much  value  except  for  its  bark,  and  even 
to-day  the  latter  often  commands  as  high  a  price  as  the 
timber. 

Hemlock  grows  both  in  pure  forests  and  associated  with  other 
conifers.  In  Pennsylvania  pure  stands  run  as  high  as  15,000 
board  feet  per  acre.  The  average  in  northern  Michigan  is  9000 
feet.  In  West  Virginia,  where  hemlock  occurs  in  a  mixed  forest, 
the  average  is  from  2000  to  3000  feet  per  acre.  The  heaviest 
stands  in  the  Appalachians  range  between  25,000  and  40,000 
feet  per  acre. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1919  was  1,415,238,000  board  feet. 

The  western  hemlock  grows  in  the  Pacific  Coast  forests,  asso- 
ciated chiefly  with  Douglas  fir  and  western  red  cedar.  The  lumber 
is  superior  to  that  of  eastern  hemlock.  The  bark  is  richer  in  tannin 
but  it  is  not  used  extensively,  because  there  are  not  many  tanning 
establishments  in  the  region  and  extract  plants  have  not  been  de- 
veloped because  high  freight  rates  to  eastern  points  limit  the 
available  market.  The  timber  is  used  for  general  construction 
purposes  and,  to  a  limited  extent  in  Oregon,  for  the  manufacture 
of  paper  pulp. 

The  yield  per  acre  ranges  from  7000  to  30,000  board  feet. 


FOREST  RESOURCES  11 

The  lumber  cut  for  1919  was  approximately  339,760,000  board 
feet. 

Redwood.  —  The  redwood  {Sequoia  sempervirens)  is  confined  to 
a  narrow  belt  from  10  to  30  miles  wide  near  the  Pacific  Coast, 
extending  southward  from  southern  Oregon  to  San  Luis  Obispo 
County  in  California.  It  is  associated  with  Douglas  fir,  tanbark 
oak  {Quercus  densifiora),  western  red  cedar  and  western  hemlock. 
The  chief  commercial  stands  are  in  Humboldt  and  Del  Norte 
Counties  in  the  northern  part  of  California. 

The  average  yield  per  acre  is  from  60,000  to  75,000  board  feet, 
although  100,000  feet  per  acre  is  not  uncommon.  Single  acres 
are  said  to  have  yielded  1,500,000  feet  of  sawed  lumber,  and 
individual  trees  have  contained  480,000  board  feet  of  merchantable 
timber.  The  highest  stand  so  far  reported  is  2,500,000  feet  per 
acre,  but  the  yield  in  merchantable  material  was  reduced  40 
per  cent  through  breakage  and  other  losses.  The  waste  in  log- 
ging redwood  is  enormous,  because  of  the  massive  size  of  the  trees 
and  the  brittle  character  of  the  timber. 

The  trees  average  6  or  7  feet  in  diameter,  although  from  10 
to  14  feet  is  not  uncommon,  with  a  maximum  of  about  20  feet. 
The  clear  length  ranges  from  100  to  200  feet. 

The  lumber  is  marketed  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  in  the  Far 
East,  and  some  high  grade  lumber  is  shipped  to  the  central 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  furnishes  wide  boards 
of  excellent  quality  for  panels  and  interior  finish.  In  the  West 
it  is  used  extensively  for  tanks,  flume  boxes,  house  construction, 
fence  posts,  shingles  and  shakes. 

There  is  very  little  redwood  stumpage  on  the  market,  because 
the  greater  part  of  the  timber  is  held  by  companies  which  are 
now  exploiting  it. 

The  lumber  cut^  in  1920  was  approximately  476,500,000  feet. 

Cypress.  —  The  commercial  range  of  cypress  (Taxodium 
distichum)  is  confined  to  a  narrow  strip  of  swampy  land  extend- 
ing along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida, 
along  the  Gulf  Coast  in  Florida,  Louisiana  and  western  Missis- 
sippi, and  up  the  Mississippi  River  to  southern  Arkansas. 

The  average  stands  range  from  5000  to  8000  board  feet  per  acre, 
the  better  ones  containing  from  15,000  to  20,000  feet  while  an 
occasional  acre  in  Louisiana  reaches  a  maximum  of  100,000 
'  This  includes  the  cut  of  the  bigtree  {Sequoia  Washingtonia). 


12  LOGGING 

feet.  It  is  a  swamp  species  wherever  it  occurs  in  commercial 
quantities  and  its  exploitation  presents  numerous  problems  not 
found  in  dry-land  logging. 

It  has  been  stated  that  at  least  one-third  of  the  standing 
cypress  is  affected  with  a  fungous  disease,  which  causes  holes 
in  the  wood  from  j  to  1  inch  wide  and  often  several  inches  long. 
Timber  so  affected  is  called  "pecky"  or  "peggy"  cypress.  The 
disease  is  caused  by  a  species  of  Daedalia  which  also  atacks  the 
incense  cedar  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  Decay  stops  as  soon  as  the 
tree  is  cut  and  manufactured  into  lumber.  Cypress  timber  on 
knolls  just  above  the  level  of  the  water  is  usually  unsound  and 
the  trees  are  fewer  in  number  than  on  the  wet  lands.  Sound 
timber  occurs  in  patches  in  the  forest  without  apparent  regularity. 
It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  pecky  trees  before  they  are  cut.  The 
trees  in  the  Atchafalaya  River  basin  are  of  larger  size  and  less 
defective  than  those  in  the  Mississippi  River  bottoms. 

Cypress  is  an  extremely  durable  wood  and  is  epecially  esteemed 
for  greenhouse  construction,  certain  forms  of  cooperage,  silos, 
tanks,  shingles,  interior  and  exterior  finish  for  buildings,  and  all 
purposes  where  resistance  to  decay  is  important. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1920  was  approximately  625,000,000 
feet. 

Eastern  Spruces.  —  There  are  three  species  which  are  found 
chiefly  in  Maine,  northern  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  New  York, 
West  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  They  are  the  white  spruce 
(Picea  canadensis),  red  spruce  (P.  rubra)  and  the  black  spruce 
(P.  mariana).  The  present  stand  is  estimated  at  31  billion  board 
feet,  a  large  part  of  which  i§  in  New  England  and  New  York. 

Spruce  occurs  in  pure  stands  on  the  higher  elevations,  and  in 
mixture  with  beech,  birch,  hard  maple  and  eastern  hemlock  on 
the  lower  elevations.  It  reaches  its  best  form  in  the  mountains 
of  West  Virginia  at  an  elevation  of  from  3000  to  4000  feet.  Bal- 
sam fir  (Abies  balsamea)  is  associated  with  spruce  in  the  northern 
part  of  its  range  and  is  now  marketed  with  it  for  pulpwood, 
without  distinction  as  to  price. 

Spruce  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  species  for  the  production 
of  paper  pulp  and  several  million  cords  of  Canadian  and  domestic 
spruce  are  consumed  annually  for  this  purpose.  It  also  is  used 
for  house  timbers,  clapboards  and  general  construction  purposes 
although  the  production  of  spruce  lumber  has  greatly  declined 


FOREST  RESOURCES 


13 


during  recent  years  owing  to  the  higher  profits  made  from  con- 
verting spruce  stumpage  into  pulpwood. 

The  chief  home  markets  are  in  New  England  and  the  Northern 
tide-water  ports. 

The  following  shows  the  approximate  stands  in  the  various 
states : 


New  York 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

West  Virginia 


Stands  per  acre 


Board  feet 

2000-  3000 
3000-  4000 
3000-  4000 
3000-  4000 
6000-10.000 


Board  feet 
If), 000 
15,000-20,000 
40,000 
15,000 
00,000 


The  cut  of  lumber  in  1919  was  534,685,000  board  feet. 

Western  Cedars.  —  The  cedars  of  the  Pacific  Coast  which  are 
of  the  greatest  commercial  importance  are  the  western  red  cedar 
(Thuya  plicata),  the  yellow  cypress  (Chamcecyparis  nootkatensis) 
Port  Orford  cedar  (C.  lawsoniana)  and  the  incense  cedar  {Liho- 
cedrus  decurrens). 

Western  red  cedar  is  the  most  important  shingle  wood  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  also  cut  extensively  for  telephone  and 
telegraph  poles.  When  cut  into  lumber  it  is  used  for  car  siding 
and  roofing,  weather-boarding,  pattern-making,  boat  building, 
cabinet  manufacture  and  a  variety  of  other  purposes  where 
strength  is  not  required. 

It  seldom  occurs  in  pure  stands,  but  is  associated  with  Douglas 
fir,  western  hemlock,  western  larch  (Larix  occidentalis) ,  several 
species  of  firs  and  redwood.  The  average  stand  per  acre  over 
large  areas,  is  from  9000  to  10,000  board  feet,  with  maximum  stands 
of  40,000  feet. 

Yellow  cypress  which  is  less  widelj^  known  in  the  market,  is 
used  for  boat  building,  vcabinet  work,  cigar  boxes,  lead  pencils 
and  interior  finish. 

It  is  associated  with  Sitka  spruce  (Picea  sitchensis),  western 
hemlock,  and  other  species  of  minor  importance.  It  occurs 
singly,  or  in  small  groups  and,  in  Alaska,  runs  from  500  to  2500 
board  feet  per  acre.     Single  acres  are  said  to  contain  40,000  feet. 


14  LOGGING 

Port  Orford  cedar  is  limited  in  amount  and  is  not  marketed 
extensively.  It  is  a  favorite  wood  for  ship  building,  and  is  also 
used  for  interior  finish,  outside  trim,  match  wood  and  cabinet 
work  for  which  it  is  especially  fitted.  It  is  usually  associated 
with  western  red  cedar,  Sitka  spruce,  western  hemlock  and 
Douglas  fir.     It  occurs  as  single  trees,  rarely  in  groups. 

Incense  cedar  is  not  cut  into  lumber  to  any  extent,  because 
of  the  excessive  taper  of  the  bole,  and  also  because  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  tiinber  is  attacked  by  a  fungus  {Daedalia  vorax) 
which  excavates  galleries  throughout  the  wood  similar  in  char- 
acter to  the  "peck"  in  cypress.  The  timber  is  used  chiefly  for 
fence  posts,  laths,  shingles,  cigar  boxes,  pencil  stock,  and  the 
best  grade  lumber  for  furniture  and  for  mining  and  irrigation 
flumes. 

It  is  associated  with  western  yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  Douglas 
fir,  western  white  pine  and  white  fir  {Ahies  concolor).  The  stand 
per  acre  in  California  ranges  from  500  to  2000  board  feet  per 
acre. 

The  lumber  cut  of  western  cedars  in  1919  was  332,234,000 
feet  of  lumber. 

Sugar  Pine.  —  Sugar  pine  (Pinus  lamhertiana)  is  found  chiefly 
in  southern  Oregon  and  in  California  where  it  is  an  important 
commercial  tree.  It  occurs  in  mixed  stands  associated  with 
western  yellow  pine,  incense  cedar  and  Douglas  fir  on  the  lower 
limits  of  its  range;  and  with  white  fir,  red  fir  {Abies  magnijicd) 
and  the  bigtree  on  the  higher  elevations.  The  jaeld  in  the 
Sierras  ranges  from  2000  to  15,000  board  feet  per  acre  with  a 
maximum  of  60,000  feet.  An  occasional  tree  contains  54,000 
feet. 

Sugar  pine  is  especially  prized  for  the  manufacture  of  "shakes" 
or  split  shingles,  and  is  also  extensively  used  for  fruit  boxes, 
match  wood,  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  ship  decking  and  interior 
trim.  The  lumber  is  often  substituted  for  that  of  eastern  white 
pine.  The  greater  part  is  marketed  locally,  but  it  is  also 
shipped  as  far  East  as  New  England. 

The  cut  in  1919  was  133,658,000  feet. 

Lodgepole  Pine.  —  This  tree  (Pinus  contorta)  is  found  from 
Alaska  to  California  and  east  to  Colorado,  and  is  used  for  mine 
timbers,  fence  posts,  lumber  and  crossties.  The  timber  is  small 
and  knotty  and  lumber  sawed  from  it  is  suitable  only  for  general 


FOREST   RESOURCES 


15 


construction  purposes.     It  is  not  in  demand  for  interior  finish 
except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  region  where  it  is  manufactured. 

YIELD   PER  ACRE   IN   BOARD   FEET,   GALLATIN   COUNTY, 
MONTANA' 

(Cutting  to  a  diameter  breast  high  of  U  inches.) 


Type 

I.odgepole  pine 

Creek    . 

Board  feet 
5900 
7200 
3800 
7000 

Eastern  Slope    

Western  Slope 

Northern  Slope 

YIELD   PER  ACRE    IN   BOARD  FEET,   MEDICINE   BOW 
NATIONAL  FOREST,   WYOMINQi 

(Cutting  to  a  diameter  breast  high  of  11  inches.) 


Type 


Pine  forest: 
Quality  I... 
Quality  II.  . 
Quality  III, 

Spruce  forest . 


Lodgepole  pii 


Ties,  6 

inches  by  8 

inches  by  8 

feet 


Number 

200 
1.30 

50 

55 


1100 


240 
230 


3000 
1100 
5.50 
700 


Spruce 
lumber 


1000 

200 

60 

4700 


Average  for  tract. 


108 


500 


1100 


500 


1  From  Forest  Tables  —  Lodgepole  Pine.     Circular  126,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  1907,  pp.  23-24. 

Lodgepole  pine  often  occurs  in  dense  pure  stands  in  the 
Sierras.  At  high  elevations  it  is  frequently  associated  with 
Douglas  fir,  alpine  fir  (Abies  lasiocarpa)  and  other  firs. 

Lodgepole  in  pure  stands  ranges  between  4000  and  30,000 
board  feet  per  acre,  the  average  over  large  areas  being  about 
8000  feet. 

The  cut  in  1919  was  16,281,000  board  feet. 

Western  Spruce.  —  The  spruces  of  importance  in  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States  are  the  Engelmann  spruce  (Picea 
engelmanni)  and  the  Sitka  spruce. 


16  LOGGING 

Engelmann  spruce  grows  at  high  altitudes  often  in  pure  forests. 
It  is  frquently  associated  with  alpine  fir,  western  larch,  lodgepole 
pine  and  western  yellow  pine. 

The  timber  is  sawed  into  lumber  and  dimension  stock  for 
local  construction  purposes. 

On  moist  flats  and  along  streams  Engelmann  spruce  and  lodge- 
pole  pine  form  stands  containing  from  40,000  to  50,000  board  feet. 
On  the  Pike  National  Forest  the  maximum  stands  are  35,000  feet 
and  the  average  stands  5000  feet.  In  the  Sopris  National  Forest 
in  Colorado,  the  stands  of  Engelmann  spruce  and  associated 
species  range  from  4000  to  20,000  feet  per  acre  from  35  to 
75  per  cent  being  Engelmann  spruce. 

Sitka  spruce  is  the  chief  commercial  species  of  Alaska  and  is 
also  found  in  large  quantities  in  Washington  and  Oregon.  It 
is  seldom  found  in  pure  stands,  except  on  areas  of  from  1  to  3 
acres  on  which  the  stand  ranges  from  10,000  to  90,000  board 
feet  per  acre.  Individual  trees  have  been  reported  which  contain 
25,000  feet.  On  the  lower  elevations  which  is  the  only  place  it 
grows  to  commercial  size  it  is  usually  associated  with  western 
hemlock,  western  red  cedar  and  yellow  cypress. 

The  product  from  the  West  Coast  forest  is  used  for  finish, 
siding,  factory  stock,  box  boards  and  laths.  It  is  also  highly 
prized  for  airplane  construction.  In  Alaska  it  is  used  chiefly 
for  box  shooks  for  the  salmon  industry  and  for  building  material. 

The  lumber  cut  of  the  western  spruces  in  1919  was  approximately 
445,283,000  feet,  the  greater  part  of  which  came  from  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon. 

Other  Conifers.  —  Among  the  conifers  cut  in  small  quantities 
are  the  eastern  larch  {Larix  americana)  now  often  sold  with 
Norway  and  white  pine,  and  also  made  into  crossties,  posts  and 
poles;  the  western  larch  (L.  occidentalis)  manufactured  into 
dimension  lumber,  ties  and  posts;  eastern  red  cedar  (Juniperus 
virginiana)  used  chiefly  for  pencil  wood,  posts  and  poles;  and  a 
number  of  pines  found  in  the  western  part  of  the  country  which 
are  of  local  importance  only. 

HARDWOODS 

The  hardwood  forests  extend  south  from  northern  New  York 
through  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  from  central  Wis- 
consin and  Michigan  through  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and 


FOREST  RESOURCES  17 

Ohio  Rivers  to  central  Louisiana,  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  and 
west  to  the  Great  Plains.  The  chief  commercial  species  are  the 
oaks,  sugar  maple,  yellow  poplar,  red  gum,  chestnut,  beech, 
birch,  bass  wood,  hickory,  elm,  ash  and  cotton  wood. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1919  of  the  above  hardwoods  was  6,872, 
576,000  board  feet  or  20.3  per  cent  of  the  total  lumber  cut  of  the 
country. 

Yellow  Poplar.  —  One  of  the  more  valuable  hardwoods  is  the 
yellow  poplar  {Liriodendron  tidipifera)  which  occurs,  chiefly,  in 
the  rich  hardwood  forests  of  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
North  Carolina  and  Kentucky.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  weather- 
boarding,  interior  finish,  furniture,  bodies  of  automobiles  and 
carriages,  wagon  boxes,  woodenware,  box  boards  and  paper 
pulp.     Wide  boards  command  a  high  price  for  panels  and  shelving. 

The  average  stand  per  acre  is  seldom  more  than  2000  board 
feet. 

The  cut  in  1920  was  350,000,000  board  feet. 

Oaks.  —  White  oak  (Quercus  alba)  is  the  most  valuable  of  the 
numerous  oaks  and  the  best  timber  comes  from  the  Appalachian 
region.  The  wood  is  used  chiefly  for  high  grade  furniture,  coop- 
erage stock,  car  frame  material,  flooring,  interior  finish,  agri- 
cultural implements,  and  crossties  for  railroads. 

Several  species  belonging  to  the  white  oak  group  are  now 
marketed  as  white  oak,  although  but  few  show  the  fine  radial 
markings  of  Quercus  alba. 

'The  red  and  black  oaks  are  indigenous  to  the  same  region  as 
the  white  oaks  and  are  now  used  extensively  for  cooperage, 
interior  finish,  car  frame  material,  furniture  and  many  other 
uses  where  strength  is  essential.  They  are  not  as  durable  as 
the  white  oaks  but  large  quantities  are  treated  with  preservatives 
and  used  for  crossties. 

The  cut  of  oak  lumber  of  all  kinds  in  1920  was  2,500,000,000 
board  feet. 

Maple.  —  Lumber  is  manufactured  from  several  species, 
namely,  the  hard  maple  (Acer  saccharum),  the  black  maple  {A. 
nigrum),  the  red  maple  {A.  rubrum),  the  silver  maple  (A.  sac- 
charinum)  and  the  Oregon  maple  {A.  macrophyllum) .  The  hard 
and  the  black  maples  produce  the  most  valuable  lumber,  which 
is  cut  chiefly  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Lake  States,  New  York,  West 
Virginia,   Ohio,    Indiana  and  some  of  the  southern  and   New 


18  LOGGING 

England  States.  The  lumber  is  prized  for  flooring  and  furniture 
and  is  also  used  for  woodenware  and  gunstoeks.  Large  quan- 
tities of  the  rough  wood  are  utilized  in  destructive  distillation. 

The  lumber  cut  of  maple  in  1920  was  875,000,000  feet. 

Red  Gum.  —  The  red  gum  (Liquidambar  styraciflua)  is  largely 
a  tree  of  the  lowlands  and  is  found  in  the  best  form  and  in  the 
heaviest  stands  along  the  Mississippi  river  bottoms  in  Arkansas, 
Mississippi,  Missouri,  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

Missouri  virgin  bottom  lands  contain  about  5500  board  feet 
per  acre  of  merchantable  timber  and  those  in  South  Carolina  4000 
feet,  but  second-growth  bottom  land  stands  run  as  high  as 
13,000  feet  per  acre.  The  maximum  stands  in  the  Mississippi 
river  bottoms  seldom  exceed  15,000  board  feet  per  acre. 

Red  gum  has  become  an  important  factor  in  the  hardwood 
market  and  it  is  used  extensively  for  furniture,  tobacco  boxes, 
fruit  packages,  and  slack  cooperage  and  other  forms  of  containers. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1920  was  850,000,000  board  feet. 

Chestnut.  —  Chestnut  {Castanea  dentata)  is  widely  distributed 
over  the  Central  hardwood  region,  although  62  per  cent  of  the  1919 
cut  was  manufactured  in  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  North 
Carolina  and  Virginia.  The  wood  is  extensively  used  for  furni- 
ture, interior  finish,  shingles,  fencing,  telephone  poles,  veneer 
backing,  slack  cooperage  and  for  the  production  of  tannin  extract. 

Chestnut  grows  in  mixed  forests  of  oak  and  other  hardwoods 
but  the  sprout  forests  are  largely  pure.  The  stand  per  acre  is 
extremely  variable,  averaging  from  2000  to  6000  board  feet. 

During  the  year  1920  475,000,000  feet  of  lumber  was  manu- 
factured from  this  species. 

Beech.  —  Beech  (Fagus  americana)  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
northern  and  Appalachian  forests  associated  with  maple  and 
birch.  The  centers  of  lumber  production  are  in  Indiana,  Mich- 
igan, Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Ohio  and  Kentucky. 

The  chief  uses  of  beech  are  for  tool  handles,  clothes  pins, 
flooring,  slack  cooperage,  veneers  and  woodenware.  Large 
quantities  of  rough  wood  are  used  for  the  production  of  wood 
alcohol  and  other  products  of  distillation. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1920  was  325,000,000  feet. 

Birch. —  The  commercial  distribution  of  birch  is  largely  con- 
fined to  the  states  of  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  New  York,  Vermont 
and  Maine  where  it  is  associated  chiefly  with  maple  and  beech,  in 


FOREST  RESOURCES  19 

stands  running  from  3000  to  8000  feet  per  acre.  Paper  birch 
(Betida  papyrifera)  in  Maine  averages  about  two  cords,  with  a 
maximum  of  fifty  cords  per  acre. 

The  yellow  birch  (B.  lutea)  and  sweet  birch  {B.  lento)  are  used 
chiefly  for  furniture,  vehicle  hubs,  tool  handles,  flooring,  interior 
finish,  veneers,  cooperage,  spool  stock  and  novelties.  The  paper 
birch  of  Maine  is  used  chiefly  for  spool  stock,  shoe  pegs  and 
shanks,  toothpicks  and  novelty  work. 

The  lumber  cut  of  birch  in  1920  was  405,000,000  board  feet. 

Bassivood.  —  This  tree  {Tilia  americana)  is  associated  with 
hemlock  and  other  hardwoods  in  the  northern  and  Appalachian 
forests.  It  is  manufactured  extensively  into  siding,  rotary-cut 
veneer,  car  lining,  heading,  excelsior,  baskets,  slack  cooperage, 
furniture  backs,  carriage  bodies,  and  pulpwood.  Although  not 
durable  it  is  one  of  the  more  valuable  hardwoods  because  of  its 
light  weight,  and  the  odorless  character  of  the  wood. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1920  was  195,000,000  feet.  The  chief 
center  of  manufacture  is  Wisconsin  where  nearly  40  per  cent  of 
the  total  output  is  produced. 

Hickory.  —  The  present  commercial  stands  of  hickory  are 
found  in  the  Appalachian  and  the  Mississippi  river  regions. 
There  are  four  species  of  commercial  importance,  namely,  the 
big  shellbark  (Hicoria  laciniosa),  the  shagbark  {H.  ovata),  the 
pignut  (H.  glabra)  and  the  mockernut  (H.  alba).  The  strongest 
and  toughest  one  is  the  pignut,  although  the  shagbark  is  but 
slightly  inferior  to  it.  The  big  shellbark  is  of  medium  quality 
only,  while  the  mockernut  is  lacking  in  toughness,  although  it 
is  strong. 

The  manufacture  of  hickory  lumber  centers  in  Arkansas,  Ten- 
nessee, Kentucky,  West  Virginia,  Indiana  and  Mississippi.  These 
States  now  produce  about  72  per  cent  of  the  total  cut. 

Hickory  occurs  singly  among  other  hardwoods.  The  stands 
over  large  areas  frequently  range  from  200  to  400  board  feet 
per  acre. 

About  65  per  cent  of  the  hickory  cut  is  used  for  vehicle  stock, 
10  per  cent  for  tool  handles,  9  per  cent  for  heavy  wagons,  8  per 
cent  for  agricultural  implements,  and  the  remainder  for  novelties 
of  various  kinds.  About  1,000,000  cords  are  used  annually  for 
fuel.  Saplings  are  sometimes  split  into  barrel  hoops,  but  this 
practice  is  less  common  than  formerly. 


20  LOGGING 

The  lumber  cut  in  1919  was  170,013,000  feet. 

Elm.  —  There  are  three  elms  commercially  important  in  the 
United  States,  the  rock  elm  {Ulmus  racemosa),  slippery  or  red 
elm  (U.  puhescens)  and  the  white  elm  (U.  americana) ,  all  of 
which  grow  in  the  rich  bottom  lands  along  streams.  Over  one- 
half  of  the  output  is  from  the  States  of  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and 
Indiana.  Elm  wood  is  used  for  hubs,  bicycle  rims,  slack  cooper- 
age, coiled  hoops,  basket  splints  and  other  purposes  where  an 
elastic  wood  is  essential. 

The  cut  in  1920  was  225,000,000  feet. 

Ash.  —  There  are  several  species  of  ash  in  the  United  States, 
but  about  60  per  cent  of  the  lumber  cut  is  white  ash  (Fraxinus 
americana),  and  30  per  cent  Ijlack  ash  (F.  nigra).  The  greater 
part  of  the  lumber  output  is  manufactured  in  the  states  bordering 
on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers.  More  than  one-half  of  the 
output  is  produced  in  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Wisconsin,  Indiana 
and  Tennessee. 

It  is  especially  adapted  for  poles  and  shafts  of  wagons  and 
carriages,  sporting  goods,  agricultural  implements,  hoops  and 
staves  for  pork  barrels,  packages  and  tool  handles. 

In  the  lower  Mississippi  bottoms  the  stand  ranges  from 
2000  to  5000  board  feet  per  acre. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1919  was  154,931,000  feet. 

Cottonwood.  —  Several  species  {Populus  sp.)  are  found  in 
abundance  and  of  large  size  in  the  bottom  lands  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  The  greater  part  of  the  annual  production  comes 
from  the  States  of  Arkansas,  Minnesota  and  Mississippi.  It  is 
in  demand  for  boxes,  wood  pulp,  lining  for  refrigerator  cars, 
excelsior,  woodenware  and  cheap  furniture. 

The  cut  in  1919  was  143,730,000  board  feet  which  is  the  lowest 
reported  output. 

Other  Hardwoods.  —  There  are  many  other  hardwoods  placed 
on  the  market  among  them  tupelo  or  bay  poplar  (Nyssa  aquat- 
ica),  which  is  manufactured  into  flooring,  interior  finish,  plank- 
ing, and  box  boards  in  Louisiana  and  other  Southern  States; 
the  cucumber  tree  (Magnolia  acuminata)  sold  largely  as  yellow 
poplar;  the  buckeye  (/Fscidiis  glabra)  manufactured  into  pulp, 
interior  finish  and  woodenware;  sycamore  (Platanus  occiden- 
talis)  used  for  furniture  and  plug  tobacco  boxes;  black  walnut 
(Juglans  nigra);    cherry  (Prunus  serotina^-  and  other  valuable 


FOREST   RESOURCES  21 

cabinet  woods.  The  above  species,  with  the  exception  of  tupelo, 
are  common  to  the  South  Central  and  Appalachian  regions 
and  are  associated  with  the  other  hardwoods. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   TO    CHAPTER  I 

Allen,  E.  T.:  The  Western  Hemlock.  Bui.  No.  33,  U.  S.  Bur.  For.,  1903. 
Betts,  H.  S.  :   Properties  and  Uses  of  Southern  Pine.     Cir.  164,  U.  S.  Forest 

Service,  1909. 
BoisEN,  Anton  T.,  and  Newlin,  J.  A.:  The  Commercial  Hickories.     Bui.  80, 

U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1910. 
Bureau  of  Census,   Dept.   of  Commerce:    Lumber,   Lath,  and  Shingles. 

Fourteenth  Census  of  the  United  States.     Forest  Products:  1919.    Washing- 
ton, 1922. 
Chittenden,  Alfred  K.,  and  Hatt,  W.  Kendrick:   The  Red  Gum.     Bui.  58, 

U.  S.  Bur.  For.,  1905. 
Dana,  S.  T.:   Paper  Birch  in  the  Northeast.     Cir.  163,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1909. 
Fisher,  Richard  T.:  The  Redwood.     Bui.  No.  38,  U.  S.  Bur.  For.,  1903. 
Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture:    Timber  Depletion,  Lumber 

Prices,  Lumber  Exports,  and  Concentration  of  Timber  Ownership.     Report 

on  Senate  Resolution  311,  Washington,  1920. 
Foster,  H.  D.,  and  Ashe,  W.  W.:   Chestnut  Oak  in  the  Appalachians.     Cir. 

135,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1907. 
Frothingham,  E.  H.:   Douglas  Fir;  A  Study  of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  Rocky 

Mountain  Form.     Cir.  150,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1909. 
Frothingham,  Earl  H. :  Second-growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut.     Bui.  96, 

U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  D.  C,  1912,  pp.  24-29. 
Greeley,  W.  B.,  and  Ashe,  W.  W.  :  White  Oak  in  the  Southern  Appalachians. 

Cir.  105,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1907. 
Hall,  William  L.,  and  Maxwell,  Hu:  Uses  of  Commercial  Woods  of  the 

United  States;   XL  Pines.     Bui.  99,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1911. 
Hall,  WilHam  L.,  and  Maxwell,  Hu:    Uses  of  Commercial  Woods  of  the 

United  States;    I.  Cedars,  Cypresses  and  Sequoias,   Bul.  95,  U.  S.   For. 

Ser.,  1911. 
Hoffman,  Bruce  E. :  Sitka  Spruce  of  Alaska.     Proc.  of  the  Society  of  American 

Foresters,  Vol.  VII,  No.  2.,  pp.  226-238. 
MoHR,  Charles:    The  Timber  Pines  of  the  Southern  United  States.     Bul. 

No.  13,  U.  S.  Div.  of  For.,  Washington,  D.  C,  1897. 
Record,  Samuel  J.:    Suggestions  to  Woodlot  Owners  in  the  Ohio  Valley 

Region.     Cir.  138,  U.  S.  For.  Service,  p.  9,  Washington,  D.  C,  1908. 
Spaulding,  V.  M.:  The  White  Pine.     Bul.  No.  22,  U.  S.  Div.  of  For.,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  1899. 
The  Lumber  Industry.     Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Corporations,  Department 

of  Commerce  and  Labor.     The  American  Lumberman,  Chicago,  Illinois, 

February  18,  1911. 
The  American  Lumber  Industry.     Official  Report  Tenth  Annual  Meeting 

National  Lumber  Manufacturers  Association,  Chicago,  Illinois,  1912. 


CHAPTER  II 
LOGGING   METHODS 

The  logging  industry  comp^rises  both  the  preparation  of  the  wood 
products  of  the  forest  for  the  manufacturing  plant  and  their 
transportation  to  it  or  to  market.  The  products  of  the  log- 
ging industry  are  saw  logs,  pulpwood,  acid-wood,  stave  and  shingle 
bolts  which  are  re-manufactured  after  they  are  removed  from  the 
forest,  and  hewed  crossties,  rived  shingles,  shakes,  poles,  posts, 
and  piling  which  are  marketed  by  the  logger  ready  for  use. 

The  work  of  preparing  a  given  class  of  products  for  removal 
from  the  forest  is  similar  in  all  regions,  although  there  may  be 
some  minor  differences  in  technique  which  have  come  into  local 
use.  The  form  in  which  the  raw  material  is  taken  from  the 
forest  depends  not  only  on  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  ultimately 
to  be  used,  but  also  upon  the  size  of  the  bole  and  the  method  of 
transportation.  Thus  an  adequate  number  of  logs  must  be 
at  least  long  enough  to  make  the  maximum  board  lengths  desired, 
but  if  the  form  of  transportation  permits,  the  logs  may  be  double 
or  triple  the  board  lengths  or  the  entire  merchantable  bole  may 
be  moved  in  one  piece.  Saw  log  and  pulpwood  operators  often 
do  not  remove  other  forest  products  but  confine  their  operations 
to  one  class  of  material.  The  various  by-products,  therefore, 
may  be  removed  by  others. 

The  early  logging  operations  were  carried  on  near  settlements 
on  areas  where  the  topographic  conditions  were  most  favorable 
for  easy  logging  and  from  which  the  haul  to  the  mill  was  compar- 
atively short.  The  work  was  done  largely  by  settlers  who  cut 
a  limited  number  of  logs  during  the  late  fall  and  winter,  when  agri- 
cultural activities  w^ere  slack,  and  hauled  the  timber  to  the  mill  or 
to  some  stream  down  which  the  logs  could  be  floated  to  destination. 
The  equipment  required  was  limited  and  required  but  little 
financial  outlay.  Logging  became  a  distinct  industry  to  which 
individuals  devoled  a  large  part  or  all  of  their  time,  only  when 
lumber  manufacture  assumed  a  national  character. 

22 


LOGGING   METHODS  23 

There  has  been  but  Httle  change,  since  the  early  days,  in  logging 
teehniqi^e  in  the  Northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  where 
the  wii^ers  are  favorable  for  sled  transportation  and  there  are 
many  streams  down  which  coniferous  timber  may  be  floated; 
however,  marked  engineering  skill  has  been  displayed  in  the 
improvement  of  streams  for  log  floating  purposes  and  the  per- 
fection of  sleds  and  sled  roads  for  the  movement  of  heavy  loads. 
The  power  log  hauler,  either  gasoline  or  steam,  has  replaced 
animal  draft  on  some  operations  and  flumes  and  log  slides  have 
been  used  to  some  extent  but  the  original  plan  of  operation  has 
not  been  greatly  modified.  Individual  logging  units  are,  in  general, 
limited  in  output.  The  aggregate  cut  of  some  pulpwood  com- 
panies in  this  region  is  as  great  as  that  of  large  operators  else- 
where, but  it  is  the  product  of  many  medium-  or  small-sized 
operations  rather  than  of  one  large  one. 

The  early  development  of  logging  practice  in  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Lake  States  was  based  upon  the  methods  of  the  Northeast 
because  climatic  and  other  conditions  were  similar  and  the  pioneer 
loggers  were  from  the  New  England  section.  The  most  important 
improvements  in  logging  technique  were  developed  in  the  Lake 
States  in  order  to  overcome  adverse  conditions.  For  example, 
logging  railroads  were  introduced  in  the  Lake  States  in  the  late, 
"seventies"  by  a  logger  who  was  unable  to  haul  his  timber  on 
sleds  to  water  transportation,  owing  to  the  absence  of  sufficient 
snow.  Power  skidding  methods  also  were  first  devised  in  this 
region  in  the  early  "eighties"  to  get  logs  out  of  glacial  "pot  holes" 
which  could  not  be  profitably  brought  out  by  animals.  There 
is  no  indication,  however,  that  railroad  transportation  gained  an 
important  place  in  logging  in  the  Lake  States  imtil  many  years 
later,  and  power  logging  has  never  been  used  to  any  great  extent 
to  yard  logs  in  that  region. 

The  development  of  the  modern  systems  of  power  logging  and 
the  adaptation  on  a  large  scale  of  the  railroad  to  logging  purposes 
came  with  the  shifting  of  the  center  of  lumber  manufacture  from 
the  Lake  States  to  the  South  and  to  the  West.  The  inability 
to  use  animals  in  the  cypress  forests  was  one  of  the  main  factors 
which  led  to  the  improvement  of  power  logging  systems  which 
were  early  recognized  by  southern  yellow  pine  and  West  Coast 
operators  as  applicable  to  dry  land  conditions.  The  need  for  a 
large  continuous  output  early  indicated  the  use  of  some  form 


h.  C.  State  Colkft€ 


24  LOGGING 

of  logging  railroad,  and  this  form  of  transportation  has  reached 
a  high  state  of  development  in  every  region  except  the  Northeast. 

Logging  and  lumber  manufacture  have  developed  as  a  single 
enterprise  in  most  forest  regions.  However,  in  certain  parts  of 
the  Pacific  Northwest  especially  in  the  regions  tributary  to  Puget 
Sound,  and  the  Columbia  River,  logging  has  been  conducted  as 
a  business  apart  from  lumber  manufacture,  the  log  output  being 
placed  on  the  general  market  or  sold  under  contract  to  manu- 
facturers who  have  no  logging  facilities.  The  tendency  in  this 
region,  however,  is  towards  a  consolidation  of  logging  and  lumber 
manufacturing  interests. 

Contract  logging  is  practiced  to  some  extent  in  every  region 
but  it  has  not  proved  a  satisfactory  method  on  many  of  the  largest 
operations  in  the  South  and  the  Northwest  because  the  extensive 
transportation  improvements  which  are  needed  to  take  logs 
from  the  stump  to  the  mill  or  to  market  require  the  investment 
of  a  large  amount  of  capital  and  there  are  relatively  few  logging 
contractors  who  are  able  to  finance  a  large  enterprise. 

The  major  part  of  the  log  output  of  the  country  is  now  produced 
by  the  professional  logger,  yet  small  operations  still  constitute 
a  large  per  cent  of  the  total  number.  They  are  most  common 
in  the  forest  regions  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  especially 
in  sections  culled  by  large  operators,  where  they  serve  a  most  use- 
ful purpose  in  the  utilization  of  stands  which  the  large  logger 
cannot  harvest  profitably.  Even  in  the  Northwest  nearly  60 
per  cent  of  the  manufacturing  plants  have  an  annual  output  of 
one-half  million  board  feet  or  less. 


SUMMARY   OF  LOGGING   METHODS  IN   SPECIFIC   REGIONS 
A.      PORTABLE    MILL    OPERATIONS 

The  annual  cut  of  a  portable  mill  ranges  from  several  hundred 
thousand  to  a  few  million  board  feet,  however,  the  industry  is 
of  importance  because  of  the  large  number  of  plants  in  operation 
many  of  which  handle  timber  in  regions  where  large  mills  are 
not  feasible. 

Portable  operations  in  New  England  are  conducted  as  a  side 
line  by  men  engaged  in  the  retail  lumber  business;  by  contractors 
who  can  use  their  idle  teams  during  the  winter  season;  by  men 
who  engage  in  lumbering  as  a  speculation  when  an  opportunity 


LOGGING   METHODS  25 

presents  itseK;  by  small  wood- working  plants  which  are  able 
to  secure  occasional  stands  of  timber  suitable  for  their  needs; 
and  also  by  those  who  engage  more  or  less  continuously  in  logging 
and  manufacture.  There  has  been  a  tendency  in  recent  years 
towards  more  specialization  and  larger  annual  output  on  the 
part  both  of  individuals  and  firms,  since  the  mill  products  can 
be  marketed  to  better  advantage.  Contract  work  both  in  logging 
and  manufacture  is  common  and  the  product  is  sold  to  railroad 
companies  in  the  form  of  crossties  and  structural  timbers;  to 
retail  lumbermen  in  the  form  of  lumber;  to  telephone  and  tele- 
graph companies  in  the  form  of  poles;  and  to  various  wood- 
working industries.  The  business  is  more  active  during  the  fall 
and  winter  months  when  agricultural  and  other  outdoor  oc- 
cupations are  slack,  because  labor  and  teams  are  more  plentiful 
and  a  snow  bottom  reduces  the  logging  expense,  especially  for 
skidding. 

On  the  National  Forests  of  the  West  the  tendency  is  for  port- 
able mill  operators  to  conduct  their  operations  more  or  less 
continuously,  except  for  interruptions  due  to  climatic  conditions. 
These  operations  are  chiefly  in  virgin  forests  often  several  miles 
from  a  railroad  and  under  conditions  that  are  unfavorable  for 
the  development  of  large  plants.  The  products  of  these  mills 
are  used  locally  by  settlers,  and  by  mines  and  other  industrial 
enterprises. 

Portable  plants  are  common  in  the  southern  yellow  pine  region. 
They  are  sometimes  located  on  small  isolated  tracts  of  virgin 
timber  but,  as  a  rule,  they  follow  large  plants  operating  on  the 
lightly-culled  lands,  and  old-field  stands.  Although  a  portion 
of  the  product  is  marketed  locally,  large  quantities  are  sold 
through  the  larger  operators,  or  through  wholesalers  and  com- 
mission men. 

LOGGING  METHODS  —  NEW  ENGLAND^ 

The  operations  in  New  England  are  conducted  chiefly  on 
woodlots  containing  from  fifty  to  several  hundred  thousand 
board  feet.  An  operation  may  be  confined  to  manufacturing  the 
stumpage  on  a  contract  basis  for  the  owner,  or  a  sawmill  man 
may  buy  the  timber  outright. 

1  See  "Second  Growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut,"  by  Earle  H.  Frothing- 
ham.     Bui.  96,  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


26  LOGGING 

A  common  practice  in  logging  virgin  timber  is  to  go  over  the 
tract  several  times,  removing  certain  products  at  a  given  cut- 
ting. Telephone,  telegraph  and  electric  light  poles  are  taken 
out  first.  Piles  are  often  cut  from  the  tops  of  pole  timber,  if 
there  is  a  market  for  this  class  of  material.  If  there  is  large  oak, 
ship  timbers  are  next  removed,  being  cut  in  long  logs  which  are 
later  sawed  into  flitches  at  the  mill.  The  remaining  timber  is 
then  converted  into  saw  logs,  the  trees  being  utilized  down  to  a 
6-inch  top  diameter. 

Crossties,  which  are  cut  in  8-foot  lengths  in  the  woods  and 
sawed  into  squared  and  pole  ties,  are  made  in  large  quantities 
from  short-bodied  trees  and  large  limbs. 

The  cutting  of  cordwood  follows  the  removal  of  the  saw  log 
material.  The  residue,  down  to  limbs  1^  inches  in  diameter, 
may  then  be  cut  up  into  material  for  charcoal  manufacture. 
Practically  all  of  the  wood  is  utilized,  except  small  l^ranches, 
when  favorable  markets  are  close  at  hand. 

The  sawmill  plant  is  set  up  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
operation  where  an  open  space  can  be  secured  for  log  and  lumber 
storage  and  where  a  water  supply  for  the  boiler  is  convenient. 
Camps  are  seldom  established. 

The  felling  crews,  which  work  several  days  in  advance  of  skid- 
ding, are  composed  chiefly  of  foreigners  and  from  one  to  two 
saw  crews  of  three  men  each  are  required.  A  three-man  crew 
consists  of  a  spotter  and  two  fallers.  The  spotter  selects  the 
trees  to  be  felled  and  notches  them,  lays  off  lengths  on  the  felled 
timber,  and  aids  the  fallers  in  swamping.  Saws  and  axes  are 
used  for  felling.  A  three-man  crew  will  fell  from  4000  to  5000 
board  feet  daily. 

Pole  cutting  may  be  done  by  contract  at  a  given  price  per  run- 
ning foot  for  felling  and  peeling.  Peeling  can  be  done  more  readily 
in  summer  and  pole-cutting  contracts  can  be  let  at  that  season 
for  about  25  per  cent  less  than  at  other  periods  of  the  year. 
Some  buyers,  however,  refuse  to  take  summer-cut  timber  because 
of  the  greater  liability  of  insect  attack. 

Hewed  ties  are  seldom  made  because  of  the  waste  in  manufac- 
ture.    Cordwood  is  cut  and  piled  by  contract. 

The  logs  are  snaked  on  steep  slopes,  and  then  hauled  on  a 
log-boat,  or  on  a  "scoot"  to  the  mill.  These  are  used  on  short 
hauls  even  when  there  is  no  snow  on  the  ground.     A  log-boat  is 


LOGGING   METHODS  27 

about  6  feet  long,  3  feet  wide,  and  has  a  flat  bottom  made  of 
heavy  planks  which  are  upturned  in  front.  A  bunk  is  placed 
about  4  feet  from  the  front  and  on  this  the  fore  end  of  the  log 
is  loaded  and  bound  with  chains,  while  the  rear  drags  on  the 
ground.  The  horses  are  hitched  to  a  chain  which  passes  through 
the  upturned  nose  and  is  attached  to  the  bunk.  A  tongue  is 
not  used.  The  scoot  is  a  sled  having  two  runners  about  12  feet 
long,  with  a  4-foot  gauge,  a  forward  and  rear  bunk,  and  a  standard 
length  tongue.  It  is  especially  serviceable  for  short  logs  which 
are  loaded  on  the  sled.  Wagons  are  not  used  to  transport  logs 
to  the  mill  unless  the  haul  is  greater  than  |-mile. 

The  usual  log  requirements  of  a  portable  mill  are  from  5000  to 
7000  board  feet  daily  and  on  short  hauls  two  teams  can  bring 
in  this  amount.  The  average  day's  work  on  an  |-mile  haul  is 
about  3500  board  feet  per  team. 

COLORADO 

The  portable  mill  operations  in  this  state  are  taken  as  a  type 
of  small  operations  on  the  National  Forests.  The  mills  are 
often  several  miles  from  a  village  at  rather  high  elevations  in 
the  forests  where  the  topography  is  rugged  and  the  snow  is 
deep  during  the  winter  season. 

The  stand  is  chiefly  small-sized  timber,  with  logs  averaging 
from  10  to  12  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end,  and  from 
three  to  four  and  one-half  16-foot  logs  per  tree,  when  cut  to  a  top 
diameter  of  6  inches. 

The  closeness  of  utilization  depends  largely  on  the  local  mar- 
kets, and  the  purpose  for  which  the  timber  is  used.  When 
waney-edge  boards  can  be  used  for  packing  cases  and  other 
rough  work  there  is  very  little  waste,  but  when  the  demand  is 
for  lumber  only,  the  mill  waste  is  large. 

The  logging  season  depends  upon  the  climatic  conditions  and 
the  character  of  bottom.  Felling  and  skidding  usually  begin  some- 
time between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  first  of  August  and 
continue  until  the  first  or  the  middle  of  January  when  snow 
becomes  too  deep  for  profitable  work.  HauHng  on  some  opera- 
tions begins  at  the  time  of  felling,  the  logs  being  handled  on 
wagons,  carts  or  go-devils  up  to  the  time  snow  falls,  and  after 
that  sleds  are  used  until  the  end  of  March  or  the  middle  of  April. 
On  other  operations  logs  are  hauled  only  in  winter. 


28  LOGGING 

Camps  are  of  log  or  board  construction  and  comprise  a  cook 
shanty,  a  bunk  house,  and  a  stable.     Labor  is  chiefly  local. 

Felling  ajid  Log-making.  —  The  methods  employed  are  similar 
to  those  in  other  regions,  the  ax  being  used  to  notch  the  timber 
and  the  saw  for  felling.  The  work  is  done  both  by  day  labor 
and  by  contract.  Efficient  crews  of  two  men  cut  about  5000 
board  feet  daily.  When  the  fallers  work  singly  at  felling  and 
bucking  each  may  average  from  2000  to  2500  board  feet  daily. 

Swamping  is  usually  done  by  a  member  of  the  skidding  crew, 
one  man  being  assigned  to  each  team.  The  cost  of  brush  disposal 
on  small  operations  depends  chiefly  on  the  species,  the  depth  of 
snow,  the  amount  of  dead  material  and  young  growth,  the 
steepness  of  the  slopes  and  the  character  of  the  bottom.  Tim- 
ber with  many  limbs  such  as  Engelmann  spruce  and  lodgepole  pine 
necessitate  more  cutting  and  handling  than  most  other  species,  hence 
brush  disposal  is  more  expensive.  Snow  from  18  to  24  inches 
deep  makes  brush  disposal  difficult,  and  seriously  hampers  the 
work.  Where  dead  material  occurs  among  young  growth  the 
piles  must  be  made  where  reproduction  will  not  be  injured  dur- 
ing brush  burning  and  where  down  timber  will  not  be  ignited. 
Men  are  hampered  in  getting  around  on  steep  slopes  and  rough 
ground  and  brush  disposal  is  more  costly  under  these  conditions. 
The  swamping  and  piling  during  the  summer  and  fall  is  sometimes 
done  by  the  fallers. 

Skidding.  —  The  movement  of  the  logs  from  the  stump  to  the 
mill  is  performed  either  in  one  or  two  operations.  On  good 
bottom  and  short  hauls  the  logs  are  either  skidded  directly  to  the 
mill  or  else  hauled  on  sleds  or  carts  over  inexpensive  roads. 
About  500  board  feet  constitute  a  load  under  the  latter  con- 
dition. The  choice  of  methods  depends  on  the  season  of  the 
year.  In  rough  sections  and  for  distances  greater  than  |-mile 
the  logs  usually  are  yarded  to  skid  ways  and  then  hauled  on 
wagons  or  sleds  to  the  mill.  On  rough  and  steep  places  a  single 
horse  is  used  for  skidding,  while  on  favorable  bottoms  two  horses 
are  employed. 

B.      NORTHEAST 

Period  of  Logging.  —  Operations  are  usually  confined  to  a 
period  of  from  twenty-six  to  thirty-two  weeks,  beginning  in  the 
late  summer  and  closing  during  the  early  spring.  Where  rail- 
road transport  is  used  summer  logging  is  practiced. 


LOGGING   METHODS  29 

l,ahor.  —  The  labor  is  composed  chiefly  of  French  Canadians 
and  Europeans.  The  men  generally  are  employed  by  the  month 
and  are  furnished  board  and  lodging  for  which  a  charge  is  made. 
Some  operators  employ  men  on  the  day  basis.  The  average 
camp  crew  on  the  larger  operations  comprises  about  sixty  men. 
Operators  frequently  contract  for  their  log  input,  in  whole  or 
in  part,  with  "jobbers"  who  maintain  independent  camps.  Con- 
tract operations  are  often  of  much  smaller  size  than  company 
camps. 

Camps.  —  The  buildings  are  log  or  board  structures  the  largest 
camps  housing  from  fifty  to  sixty  men,  and  from  twenty-five  to 
forty  horses.  They  are  used  for  two  or  three  seasons  and  then 
abandoned  or  else  used  as  storehouses.  Board  camps  are  used 
chiefly  on  railroad  operations.  Supplies  are  hauled  in  on  sleds 
or  wagons  where  rail  transport  is  not  available.  Workmen  do 
not  bring  their  families  into  camp. 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  The  topography  of  the  region 
ranges  from  rolling  to  rough,  and  the  bottom  often  is  covered  with 
a  heavy  growth  of  underbrush.  The  steep  slopes  are  rocky. 
The  rolling  land  provides  a  good  bottom  for  animals.  Swamps 
are  common  in  the  region  and  are  logged  during  the  winter  sea- 
son. 

Climate.  —  The  winters  are  long  and  severe  with  a  minimum 
temperature  of  from  25  to  40  degrees  F.  below  zero.  There  are 
relatively  long  periods  when  thaws  are  uncommon.  The  average 
snowfall  throughout  the  region  varies  from  60  to  90  inches.  Winter 
conditions  are  ideal  for  the  maintenance  of  snow  and  iced  roads 
for  sled  hauling. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  The  practice  is  to  fell  the  timber 
with  the  saw  and  ax.  The  boles  are  cut  into  standard  lengths  for 
saw  logs,  and  into  long  logs  when  the  timber  is  to  be  manufac- 
tured into  pulp  wood,  although  occasionally  pulp  wood  timber  is 
cut  into  2-  or  4-foot  lengths  for  ease  in  handling.  The  fallers 
work  in  crews  of  two  or  three  men  and  cut  and  make  into  logs 
from  5000  to  8000  board  feet  of  timber,  daily.  Spruce  pulpwood 
is  sometimes  peeled  in  the  forest. 

Skidding.  —  Animal  logging  predominates  in  the  region,  al- 
though a  few  cableway  skidders  have  been  used  in  New  England 
on  difficult  logging  chances.  Snaking  machines  have  been 
employed  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  the  mountains  of  northern 


30  LOGGING 

New  York.  Yarding,  on  operations  where  a  sled  haul  is  used, 
begins  in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall  and  continues  until  the 
snow  gets  too  deep  for  profitable  felling,  which  is  usually  during 
the  latter  part  of  December.  Logs  are  decked  on  skidways  along 
two-sled  roads  and  are  either  dragged  to  the  yard  by  a  single 
animal  or  a  team,  or  else  hauled  on  a  yarding  sled.  A  skidding 
and  a  felling  crew  of  seven  men  can  cut  and  skid  from  5000  to 
7000  board  feet  daily  on  a  ^-mile  haul  when  a  team  and  yarding 
sled  are  employed  for  moving  the  timber. 

Chutes  and  log  slides  are  occasionally  installed  to  bring  logs 
down  steep  slopes. 

Transportation.  —  Logs  are  transported  from  the  skidways  to 
a  landing  on  a  stream  on  a  two-sled  drawn  by  two  or  four  horses, 
or  on  a  yarding  sled  when  the  haul  does  not  exceed  1^  miles. 
Steam  or  gasoline  log  haulers  are  frequently  substituted  for  ani- 
mal draft  on  long  hauls.  The  logs  are  floated  out  of  the  small 
streams  during  the  early  spring  freshets  and  are  driven  down  the 
large  streams  during  the  summer. 

Railroad  operations  are  not  common  but  where  rail  transport 
is  used  logs  are  yarded  and  hauled  on  sleds  to  the  railroad  during 
the  winter  months,  and  yarded  directly  to  the  railroad  during 
the  summer. 

Flumes  have  been  used  in  a  few  instances  for  bringing  pulp- 
wood  from  the  forest  to  a  stream  down  which  it  is  driven. 

The  common  form  of  transporting  logs  to  the  mill  is  by  float- 
ing. Rafting  is  practiced  only  after  the  logs  are  assorted  on  the 
lower  stretches  of  the  stream.  Drives  are  conducted  largely  by 
incorporated  companies. 

C.      LAKE    STATES  —  WHITE    PINE 

Period  of  Logging.  —  Railroad  operations  are  conducted 
throughout  the  year  unless  suspended  on  account  of  snow.  When 
logs  are  transported  on  sleds  to  streams  down  which  they  are 
driven,  the  season  is  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  weeks  long,  be- 
ginning in  the  late  summer  and  ending  with  the  termination  of 
hauhng. 

Labor.  —  The  laborers  are  chiefly  Swedes,  Norwegians,  Finns, 
Austrians  and  Poles.  Foremen  are  often  native-born  Americans. 
The  wage  basis  of  payment  is  common. 

Camps.  —  On    railroad    operations    camps    often    are    board 


LOGGING   METHODS  31 

structures  although  log  buildings  are  also  used.  The  latter  are 
employed  almost  exclusively  on  operations  where  the  logs  are 
hauled  on  sleds  and  floated  down  streams.  Workmen  are  boarded 
and  housed  by  the  operator. 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  The  topography  varies  through- 
out the  region.  In  some  sections  the  land  is  flat,  more  often  it 
is  rolling  and  "pot  holes,"  which  present  difficult  logging  prob- 
lems, are  common.  The  brush  is  often  dense  in  the  forest  where 
the  pine  is  mixed  with  hardwoods,  while  in  pure  stands  of  pine 
the  undergrowth  is  usually  scanty. 

Climate.  —  The  winter  season  is  long  with  low  temperatures 
and  abundant  snowfall  throughout  most  parts  of  the  region. 
Conditions  are  favorable  for  sled  transportation  to  streams, 
although  logging  operations  in  some  sections  have  now  been  pushed 
back  into  regions  where  log  driving  is  impracticable. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  This  work  is  performed  by  a  crew 
of  two  or  three  men  who  operate  under  the  direction  of  a  saw 
boss.  Low  stumps  are  cut  and  the  bole  is  taken  to  a  top  diam- 
eter of  about  4  inches.  Logs  are  generally  cut  into  standard 
lengths.  The  daily  output  of  a  crew  of  two  men  is  from  6000 
to  10,000  board  feet,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  timber. 

Skidding.  —  Animal  logging  is  predominant.  Several  meth- 
ods are  used  for  bringing  logs  to  the  skidway  which  is  either 
along  a  railroad  or  a  sled  road.  For  small  logs  and  for  distances 
of  from  300  to  400  feet  snaking  is  common  while  for  large  logs 
and  rough  bottom  go-devils  are  used.  Logs  are  snaked  for 
500  or  600  feet  on  snow  bottom.  High  wheeled  carts  are  used 
by  some  operators  for  logging  to  a  railroad  in  summer,  when 
hauling  for  distances  from  j-  to  |-mile.  On  winter  logging 
swamps  are  crossed  and  often  hauls  of  |-mile  are  made  by 
means  of  a  jumbo  dray,  the  logs  being  snaked  out  to  the  roads 
and  then  hauled  directly  to  the  skidway  along  the  railroad. 
Steel-spar  cableway  skidders  are  now  used  on  some  hardwood 
and  hemlock  operations. 

Transportation.  —  Railroads  are  the  chief  form  of  transport. 
During  the  spring,  summer  and  fall  the  logs  required  daily  are 
yarded  directly  to  the  railroad  and  loaded  on  cars.  The  winter 
supply  of  logs  is  either  decked  along  the  railroad  or  else  yarded 
at  more  remote  spots  and  then  hauled  to  the  railroad  on  two- 
sleds.     There   are   only   minor   interruptions   of   railroad   traffic 


32  LOGGING 

due  to  snowfall.  The  use  of  two-sleds  for  hauling  logs  to  a  stream 
down  which  they  are  floated  is  less  common  than  formerly, 
because  of  the  high  value  of  the  white  pine  stumpage  and  the 
large  amounts  of  heavy  hardwoods  which  are  now  being  logged. 
Steam  and  gasoline  log  haulers  are  common  in  the  Lake  States 
on  sled  hauls,  sometimes  bringing  the  logs  directly  to  the  mill. 


D.       SOUTHERN    YELLOW    PINE 

Period  of  Logging.  —  The  year  round. 

Labor.  —  White  and  colored.  The  former  provide  the  more 
skilled  labor  and  the  latter  the  unskilled,  although  colored  laborers 
occasionally  occupy  positions  of  responsibility.  On  some  opera- 
tions in  the  northern  part  of  the  region,  whites  are  employed 
exclusively. 

Camps.  —  They  are  chiefly  portable  houses  in  which  the  loggers 
and  their  families  reside.  A  general  store,  church,  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
and  school  house  are  often  provided.  Car  camps  may  be  used 
when  families  are  not  furnished  accommodations. 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  In  the  southern  part  of  the  region 
the  country  is  flat  or  rolling,  while  on  the  northern  edge  it  is 
usually  broken.  The  bottom  in  the  longleaf  forests  is  generally 
free  from  brush,  while  in  the  loblolly  and  shortleaf  forests  there 
is  often  a  heavy  undergrowth. 

Climate.  —  A  period  of  heavy  rainfall  occurs  during  the  winter 
months  which  often  causes  the  cessation  of  logging  operations 
due  to  bad  bottom.  Snowfall  is  very  scanty  or  lacking.  Freez- 
ing temperatures  occur  in  the  northern  part  of  the  region  for  short 
periods. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  This  is  customarily  done  by  a 
two-man  crew  who  use  the  saw  and  ax.  The  daily  output  is 
from  7500  to  15,000  board  feet,  depending  on  the  size  of  the 
timber  and  the  stand  per  acre.  Contract  work  prevails.  Where 
animal  skidding  is  used  logs  are  cut  in  standard  lengths,  while 
where  power  skidding  is  employed  they  are  cut  in  lengths  rang- 
ing from  24  to  48  feet.  Sometimes  the  entire  bole  is  brought  to 
the  mill  and  there  cut  into  logs. 

Skidding.  —  Animal  logging  is  still  used  throughout  the  region, 
although  the  power  snaking  system  is  common  in  the  flat  pineries, 
and  the  rehaul  system  in  brushy  sections.     Occasionally  a  cable- 


LOGGING  METHODS  33 

way  skidder  is  used.  The  favorite  metliod  of  animal  logging  is 
to  "snake"  the  timber  for  short  distances,  and  to  move  distant 
logs  with  bummers,  high  carts,  or  wagons.  When  standard 
length  logs  are  handled  bummers  are  a  favorite  vehicle  for  the 
shorter  distances,  and  4-,  6-,  or  8-wheeled  wagons  for  long  distances. 
High-wheeled  carts  are  preferred  for  long  logs,  and  are  often 
used  for  short  ones  on  hauls  of  800  feet  or  less. 

Transport.  —  The  ahnost  universal  form  of  long  distance  trans- 
port of  logs  from  the  forest  to  the  mill  is  by  railroad,  because  of 
the  continuous  operation  of  the  plant,  lack  of  suitable  streams 
for  driving,  and  the  heavy  weight  of  the  timber.  Where  streams 
are  available,  floating  is  practiced  to  a  limited  extent  by  small 
operators;  however,  the  loss  from  sunken  timber  is  from  25  to 
33  per  cent. 


Period  of  Logging.  —  The  year  round. 

Labor.  —  The  unskilled  labor  is  composed  of  negroes,  Creoles, 
and  Mexicans,  and  the  skilled  labor  of  whites.  Contract  work 
prevails. 

Camps.  —  Floating  camps  built  on  scows  are  used  on  pullboat 
operations,  and  permanent  board  camps  on  railroad  operations. 

Character  of  Bottom.  —  The  bottom  on  many  of  the  swamps  is 
covered  with  water  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  although  there 
are  many  "islands"  and  other  extensive  areas  which  are  seldom, 
if  ever,  submerged,  where  railroad  camps  may  be  located.  The 
timber  grows  both  on  the  wet  ground  and  on  the  higher  eleva- 
tions.    The  bottom  is  too  soft  for  animal  logging. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  The  timber  which  is  girdled  or 
deadened  some  weeks  or  months  in  advance  of  felling  and  log- 
making  is  felled  and  made  into  logs  with  the  ax  and  saw.  Work- 
men are  paid  by  the  log,  tree,  or  thousand  board  feet  cut.  A  crew 
of  two  men  will  fell  and  make  into  logs  from  7500  to  10,000  feet 
of  timber,  daily.  Timber  is  cut  to  a  minimum  diameter  of  8 
inches  in  the  top. 

Skidding.  —  Two  methods  are  used. 

(1)  Pullboat  Logging.  —  A  slack-rope  skidding  device  is 
mounted  on  a  scow  and  moored  in  a  canal,  bayou,  or  lake  to 
which  logs  are  dragged  for  distances  of  from  3500  to  5000  feet. 


34  LOGGING 

They  are  then  rafted  and  towed  to  the  mill.  The  daily  output 
is  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  logs. 

(2)  Cableway  Skidding  and  Rail  Transport.  —  A  cableway 
skidder  is  placed  by  the  side  of  a  spur  or  main  line  track  and 
logs  are  yarded  to  the  railroad  from  distances  of  600  or  800  feet. 
They  are  then  loaded  upon  cars  and  transported  to  the  mill. 
The  daily  output  is  from  30,000  to  40,000  board  feet  per  skidder. 

Trans'port.  —  Floating  and  railroading  are  the  two  methods 
used. 

(1)  Floating.  —  The  logs  arc  made  into  cigar-shaped  units 
about  125  feet  long  and  several  of  them  are  joined  together  into 
a  raft  and  towed  to  a  mill. 

(2)  Railroad.  —  Main  lines  in  the  swamps  are  usually  built 
on  piling.  Spur  roads,  which  are  located  approximately  |-mile 
apart  are  "dunnage"  roads.  Light-weight  engines  and  skeleton 
cars  are  employed.  Logs  are  loaded  on  cars  by  a  special  device 
on  the  skidder. 

r.      NORTHWEST 

Period  of  Logging.  —  The  year  round. 

Labor.  —  Logging  is  highly  specialized  and  requires  a  relatively 
large  number  of  skilled  men  among  whom  are  found  natives, 
Swedes,  Norwegians  and  other  foreigners.  Unskilled  labor  is 
foreign  and  consists  of  the  nationalities  mentioned  and  also 
men  from  southern  Europe, 

Camps.  —  Either  car  camps,  board  camps,  or  portable  houses 
are  used  to  shelter  the  men.  Families  seldom  reside  in  camp. 
Laborers  are  housed  and  boarded  by  the  logger. 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  The  region  ranges  from  rolling  to 
rugged  and  in  many  sections  difficult  logging  problems  are  en- 
countered. Underbrush  is  heavy  in  the  coast  forests  where 
rainfall  is  abundant. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  Felling  and  log-making  are  done  by 
separate  crews.  Fallers  who  work  in  crews  of  two  may  or  may 
not  do  the  notching.  Two  log  buckers  who  work  alone  are 
required  for  each  crew  of  fallers.  Logs  are  cut  in  lengths  of 
26  feet  or  longer. 

Yarding.  —  Power  logging  is  now  almost  universal,  the  slack- 
rope  system  being  the  predominant  form  although  many  ca])le- 
way  skidders  are  in  operation  for  handling  small-  and  medium- 


LOGGING   METHODS  35 

sized  timber  and  for  "swinging"  logs  from  the  yarding  engines 
to  the  railroad. 

Animal  logging  is  found  only  on  small  operations  where  the 
"chance"  is  favorable  and  the  output  limited. 

Transport.  (1)  Road  Engine.  —  A  road  engine  sometimes 
takes  logs  from  the  yarding  engine  to  a  stream  or  railroad.  This 
practice  is  less  common  than  formerly. 

(2)  Railroad.  —  The  yarding  engines  are  placed  at  points 
accessible  to  the  logging  railroad.  Intermediate  transportation 
such  as  swing  donkeys  or  road  engines,  however,  may  be  installed 
between  the  yarding  engine  and  the  railroad.  Logs  are  loaded 
on  flat  or  skeleton  cars  or  log  trucks  and  hauled  to  the  mill,  to 
a  driveable  stream,  or  to  tide-water.  When  yarding  engines 
are  used  cars  are  loaded  with  a  gin-pole,  or  some  overhead  loading 
system,  and  when  the  cableway  skidder  is  used  the  logs  are 
loaded  with  a  guy  line  or  swinging-boom  device  provided  for  that 
purpose.  Cars  are  unloaded  by  hand  methods,  log  dumps, 
or  other  special  unloading  devices. 

(3)  Raftimj.  —  Logs  l)rought  to  tide-water  are  rafted  and  towed 
to  the  mill. 

(4)  iPtumes.  —  These  are  frequently  used  for  l)ringing  logs 
from  the  forest  to  the  railroad  or  some  stream. 

(5)  jCJiutes.  —  Chutes  and  slides  are  used  in  some  sections 
for  bringing  logs  down  steep  slopes  and  for  handling  logs  on  bot- 
toms that  cut  up  badly  in  dry  weather.  Three-pole  and  five- 
pole  chutes  are  in  most  common  use. 

(6)  Aerial  Tramways.  —  These  are  used  to  bring  logs  from 
high  elevations  to  lower  ones,  especially  on  very  rough  ground. 

(7)  Motor  Trucks.  —  The  timber  from  small  or  isolated  tracts 
is  often  hauled  to  the  sawmill  on  heavy  motor  trucks. 

G.      MOUNTAIN    LOGGING    IN    WEST   VIRGINIA* 

Period  of  Logging.  —  The  year  round. 

Labor.  —  The  foremen  are  usually  Americans,  and  the  remain- 
ing laborers  are  chiefly  foreigners,  such  as  Italians,  Austrians, 
Poles,  and  Hungarians  with  a  small  percentage  of  other  na- 
tionalities. 

Camps.  —  The  camps  are  chiefly  board  structures  built  along 

1  See  Cost  of  Mountain  Logging  in  West  Virginia,  by  Henry  H.  Farquhar. 
Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  255-269. 


36  LOGGING 

the  logging  railroad.  They  accommodate  from  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  men  and  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  horses.  Board  and 
lodging  are  provided  by  the  operator.  Families  seldom  reside 
in  camp. 

Topography  arid  Bottom.  —  The  region  in  which  extensive 
operations  are  now  conducted  is  rugged  with  narrow  valleys 
and  steep  slopes,  covered  in  many  places  with  massive  boulders 
that  are  a  hinderance  to  logging.  Mountain  laurel  is  abundant 
throughout  the  forest  and  necessitates  heavy  swamping. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  On  operations  where  hemlock  bark 
and  logs  are  utilized  the  bark  peelers  fell,  bark,  and  cut  the 
boles  into  logs  during  the  months  of  May  to  August,  inclusive. 
During  the  remainder  of  the  year  the  felling  crews,  each  having 
a  chopper  and  two  sawyers,  go  through  the  forest  felling  and 
cutting  the  remaining  spruce  and  hemlock  trees  into  logs.  The 
hardwoods  are  cut  after  the  softwoods  to  avoid  the  loss  through 
breakage  which  would  occur  if  all  of  the  timber  were  felled  at  one 
time.  Trees  are  cut  to  a  stump  diameter  of  10  inches  and  the 
boles  to  a  top  diameter  of  8  inches  for  saw  logs,  and  4  inches 
for  pulp  wood.  A  crew  of  two  men  will  fell  and  make  into  logs 
from  15,000  to  20,000  board  feet  of  spruce  and  hemlock,  daily. 
Two  knot  cutters  are  often  members  of  the  felling  crew.  Their 
duty  is  to  snipe  the  ends  of  the  logs  and  to  remove  the  limbs  from 
them. 

Skidding.  —  Skidding  is  done  chiefly  with  animals.  Roads 
or  trails  are  cut  from  the  valleys  up  to  the  tops  of  the  ridges  and 
the  logs  are  dragged  down  in  tows  either  over  skipper  roads  or 
pole  slides.  A  team  on  a  skipper  road  will  handle  from  5000  to 
6000  board  feet  daily  on  a  haul  of  j-mile.  Slides  are  common 
in  some  sections  and  are  built  from  a  few  hundred  feet  to  1  mile 
or  more  in  length. 

The  cableway  system  of  power  logging  is  in  occasional  use  on 
rough  chances  and  on  some  operations  single-line  snaking  machines 
are  employed  for  dragging  logs  for  distances  as  great  as  2500 
feet. 

Transportation.  —  On  many  operations  the  logs  are  hauled  to 
the  mill  on  narrow-  or  standard-gauge  railroads.  The  narrow- 
gauge  roads  are  sometimes  of  the  stringer  type.  The  railroad  is 
usually  built  up  the  main  "draws"  or  valleys.  Spurs  are  sel- 
dom constructed  because  of  the  heavy  expense. 


LOGGING  METHODS  37 

Inclines  are  common  and  occasionally  aerial  trams  are  em- 
ployed. 

Logs  are  loaded  both  by  hand  and  with  power  loaders  of  sev- 
eral types. 

Water  transport  is  used  in  regions  where  suitable  streams 
are  available.  The  logs  are  hauled  to  the  stream  and  placed  in 
the  channel  awaiting  a  freshet  to  carry  them  down  stream. 


PART  II 
PREPARING  LOGS  FOR  TRANSPORT 


CHAPTER  III 
FOREST  LABOR 

The  successful  conduct  of  forest  operations  depends  in  a  large 
measure  on  the  character,  supply  and  efficiency  of  labor,  factors 
which  are  influenced  by  the  economic  conditions  of  the  country. 
In  prosperous  times  work  is  abundant  and  capable  men  are  not 
attracted  by  the  average  wage  paid  for  forest  work.  This  means 
a  restless  woods  force,  a  portion  of  which  constantly  shifts  from 
camp  to  camp.  Business  depression  is  quickly  felt  in  the  lumber 
industry  because  in  hard  times  railroad  companies  and  other 
large  consumers  of  forest  products  reduce  their  purchases  of 
lumber,  crossties  and  other  material.  The  dull  market  prompts 
the  lumberman  to  cut  down  expenses,  and  one  of  the  first  steps 
taken  is  to  reduce  the  labor  charge  since  this  is  one  of  the  chief 
items  in  the  cost  of  lumber  production. 

The  agricultural  interests  of  different  regions  also  may  have 
a  decided  influence  on  labor  supply  during  certain  seasons. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  cypress  region  of  Louisiana,  where 
sugar  production  is  an  important  industry  and  where  Creoles  and 
negroes  prefer  to  work  in  the  fields  and  sugar  mills  during  the 
cane-harvesting  season. 

LENGTH   OF   EMPLOYMENT 

The  length  of  time  forest  laborers  are  required  each  year  is 
governed  by  the  character  of  the  operation.  In  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  United  States,  in  some  parts  of  the  Lake  States  and 
in  the  Inland  Empire  there  is  a  demand  for  the  maxunum  number 
of  laborers  only  from  eight  to  nine  months  of  the  year;  in  the 
southern  pine,  cypress  and  Pacific  Coast  forests,  where  rail- 
roading replaces  sled  haul  and  water  transport,  loggers  operate 
the  year  round. 

41 


42  LOGGING 


CHARACTER 


During  the  early  years  of  the  industry,  the  woods  force  in  the 
North  and  East  was  recruited  chiefly  from  the  native  agricultural 
element,  but  to-day  only  40  per  cent  of  the  loggers  in  New  England 
and  15  per  cent  of  those  in  the  Lake  States  are  Americans.  The 
remainder  include  French  Canadians,  Finns,  Swedes,  Poles,  and 
natives  of  Southern  Europe.  French  Canadians  come  across  the 
border  during  the  fall  and  winter  months  to  secure  a  "stake, "  and 
return  when  the  logging  season  is  over.  Many  Swedes  and  Nor- 
wegians, who  are  among  the  best  woods  workers  from  Europe,  are 
employed  in  the  Lake  States  and  also  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Finns 
and  Poles  work  chiefly  in  the  Lake  States.  In  all  these  sections, 
native  whites  generally  occupy  the  more  responsible  positions. 

About  60  per  cent  of  the  forest  labor  in  the  Pacific  Northwest 
is  American,  the  remainder  consisting  of  Scandinavians,  Canadians, 
Finns,  Austrians,  Germans  and  a  few  Japanese.  Americans 
comprise  about  28  per  cent  of  the  forest  labor  in  northern  Idaho 
and  western  Montana,  31  per  cent  in  the  California  redwood 
region,  and  50  per  cent  in  the  California  pine  region,  and  native 
whites  and  negroes  100  per  cent  in  most  parts  of  the  southern 
yellow  pine  region. 

The  labor  in  the  Appalachians  consists  largely  of  natives, 
some  of  whom  combine  agriculture  with  logging  while  others 
follow  logging  as  their  sole  occupation. 

Creoles  and  Mexicans  are  common  in  the  Louisiana  cypress 
swamps,  and  many  Mexicans  are  employed  in  Texas,  especially 
around  the  mills  and  on  railroad  construction  work.  The  South- 
ern whites  often  are  agriculturists  who  work  at  logging  only  for 
a  portion  of  the  year,  while  the  negroes,  except  in  the  sugar 
country,  follow  the  industry  the  year  round  with  frequent  shifts 
from  one  camp  to  another.  Owing  chiefly  to  the  climate,  the 
laborers  are,  on  the  whole,  less  energetic  than  those  in  northern 
regions.  The  color  line  usually  is  drawn  on  logging  operations  and 
mixed  crews  are  not  the  rule.  Creoles  and  Mexicans  work  with 
colored  laborers,  although  Mexicans  are  inclined  to  be  clannish. 

METHODS    OF   EMPLOYMENT    AND    PAYMENT 

riie  usual  methods  of  paying  labor  on  logging  operations  are : 
(1)  A  straight  hour,  day,  or  monthly  wage  basis;    (2)  piece- 
work basis;     (3)  contract  basis. 


Wage  basis:  —  The  wage  basis  prevailed  for  many  years  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  and  is  still  in  common  use  to-day  in  the 
Northeast,  the  Lake  States,  the  Aj^palachians,  the  South,  the 
Inland  Empire  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  although  the  piece-work 
and  the  contract  basis  have  been  extensively  introduced  in  recent 
years.  Formerly  the  wage  included  board,  but  in  most  regions 
laborers  are  now  charged  for  board  and  in  some  cases  for  lodgings 
when  superior  accommodations  are  offered.  Workmen  are  now 
seldom  paid  for  lost  time  that  is  due  to  bad  weather  or  to  sickness. 
The  straight  wage  system  has  come  into  disfavor  because  it  tends 
toward  inefficiency  and  waste,  since  there  is  little  incentive  for 
the  average  laborer  to  do  more  than  is  necessary  to  hold  his  job. 
Where  it  is  still  in  use,  the  hour  system  is  the  more  common, 
only  skilled  employees  being  hired  by  the  month.  Various  sub- 
stitutes for  the  straight  wage  system  have  been  devised,  in  order 
that  workmen  may  be  paid  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  work 
actually  and  satisfactorily  performed. 

Piece  work :  —  This  method  of  paying  employees  has  been  ex- 
tensively adopted  by  the  lumber  industry  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  In  logging  work  it  has  been  applied  to  felling  and  log- 
making,  skidding  and  yarding,  hauling,  and  laying  and  taking 
up  steel  on  logging  railroads.  A  form  of  bonus  or  premium 
plan  has  been  introduced  into  the  piece-work  system  in  some  parts 
of  the  country,  especially  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  The  most 
common  application  of  this  principle  has  been  to  yarding, 
although  some  firms  apply  it  to  nearly  all  forms  of  logging  work. 
Most  of  these  schemes  have  been  founded  on  the  general  basis 
of  a  guaranteed  minimum  wage  for  a  specified  amount  of  work 
performed,  called  the  "base,"  and  the  payment  of  a  premium  or 
bonus  for  all  work  over  and  above  the  base. 

In  some  camps  the  bonus  plan  is  applied  only  to  a  few  employees 
who  are  acting  in  a  supervisory  capacity.  While  this  tends  to 
make  those  to  whom  the  bonus  is  offered  more  diligent  in  their 
efforts  to  increase  output  and  reduce  operating  costs,  it  neglects  the 
necessary  stimulus  to  those  who  are  ineligible.  Such  a  system, 
therefore,  seldom  appeals  to  the  workmen,  because  the  ultimate  aim 
is  to  secure  more  work  from  thorn  without  any  pecuniary  benefit. 

One  bonus  system^  whicl\  has  been  used  for  several  years  is 

^  Known  as  the  Brown's  Bay  System  because  it  was  first  advocated  on  the 
West  Coast  by  the  Brown's  Bay  Logging  Co.  of  Seattle,  Washington. 


44 


LOGGING 


based  on  the  establishment  of  a  monthly  (26  days)  base  output 
for  each  yarding  crew,  for  which  a  guaranteed  wage  is  paid.  The 
crew  then  receive  a  bonus,  per  thousand  board  feet,  for  each  50,000 
board  feet  logged  over  and  above  the  base  during  the  26-day  period. 
This  bonus  is  distributed  among  the  members  of  the  yarding 
crew  in  the  proportion  that  each  worker's  guaranteed  wage  bears 
to  the  guaranteed  wage  of  the  entire  crew.  In  some  cases  the 
bonus  takes  the  form  of  payment  of  so  many  cents  per  thousand 
feet,  log  scale.  The  general  scheme  of  distribution  is  shown  in 
the  following  table : 

BROWN'S   BAY   BONUS   SYSTEMi 

(Yarding  Crew  of  14  men.) 


Total 
bonus  at 
75c  per  M 

Total 

Cost  per 
M  incl. 
bonus 

5  men  at 

2  men  at 

4  men  at 

1  man  at 

2  men  at 

Per  mo. 

monthly 

$2.25  per 

$2.50  per 

$2.75  per 

$3.00  per 

$3.50  per 

of  26  days 

pay  of 
crew  incl. 

day,  6 
per  cent 

day,  &i 
per  cent 

day.  7i 
per  cent 

day,  8 
per  cent 

day,  n 
per  cent 

800  M 

S968  50 

SI. 210 

850  M 

$37.50 

1006  00 

1.183 

$2  25' 

$2.44 

.$2.81 

$3.00 

$3.56 

900  M 

75.00 

1043  50 

1  159 

4  50 

4.88 

5.62 

6.00 

7.12 

950  M 

112.50 

1081.00 

1 .  138 

6  75 

7  32 

8  43 

9.00 

10.68 

1000  M 

150.00 

1118.50 

1.118 

9,00 

9.76 

11.24 

12.00 

14.24 

1  If  the  guaranteed  work  of  the  crew  of  14  men  for  a  twenty-six-day  period  and  an  800,000  board 
foot  base  is  $968.50,  then  the  wage  of  a  man  receiving  $2.25  per  day  is  6  per  cent;  that  of  one  receiv- 
ing $2.50  per  day  65  per  cent. 

2  This  represents  the  bonus  for  the  twenty-six-day  period  to  which  a  workman  receiving  $2.25 
per  day  was  entitled. 

The  criticism  of  this  system  is  that  it  applies  only  to  a  portion 
of  the  logging  crew,  although  in  practice  the  greater  efficiency 
secured  from  the  yarding  crew  and  the  efforts  made  by  them  to 
earn  a  bonus  affected  nearly  every  man  in  the  camp.  Cooks 
have  more  lunches  to  put  up,  pump  men  must  put  in  extra  hours, 
and  train  crews  are  called  on  to  handle  additional  tonnage.  This 
method  of  applying  a  bonus  is  also  subject  to  criticism  unless 
the  base  is  changed  for  each  new  set  of  conditions,  because  the 
topography,  stand  of  timber,  and  general  operating  conditions 
often  vary  widely  in  different  logging  ''chances,"  and  a  crew 
might  find  it  difficult  to  log  even  the  base  if  adverse  conditions 
were  encountered  on  a  given  "show."  This  difficulty  has  been 
overcome  by  a  modification  of  this  system,  introduced  by  some 
western  operators,  in  which  a  standard  output,  or  base,  is  deter- 
mined for  each  rollway  which  is  logged.     Each  "show"  is  ex- 


FOREST  LABOR  45 

amined  separately  by  the  superintendent,  foreman,  and  the 
hooktender,  who  write  on  a  slip  of  paper  their  judgment  as  to 
what  the  base  should  be  for  that  particular  rollway.  These 
figures  are  then  averaged  to  determine  the  base.  For  all  output 
over  and  above  this  base,  each  member  of  the  yarding  crew  receives 
a  bonus,  payable  at  the  end  of  the  month,  subject  to  certain  general 
rules  previously  established.  The  rules  of  one  company  governing 
the  payment  of  a  bonus  are  as  follows : 

GENERAL   RULES 

1.  "No  employee  will  receive  a  premium  for  a  fractional  month's  work. 

2.  "The  daily  wage  received  when  you  enter  our  employ  will  be  your 
wages  for  the  year. 

3.  "The  scale  of  logs  will  be  according  to  the  scale  rule  we  have  used  here 
in  the  past.  The  logs  will  be  scaled  by  our  scaler,  but  the  employees  have 
the  right  to  call  in  a  scaler  if  not  satisfied.  If  these  two  cannot  agree,  they 
can  select  the  third  man  whose  decision  must  be  final.  The  expense  of  the 
last  two  men  must  be  borne  by  the  employees.  Any  lost  loads  along  our 
railroad  will  not  be  counted. 

4.  "Allowance  will  be  made  for  lost  time  for  delays  beyond  our  control 
when  they  exceed  one-half  a  day  but  no  credit  will  be  given  for  any  short 
delays  that  occur  in  any  logging  operations;  *  *  *  . 

5.  "No  premium  on  overtime  will  be  allowed  except  when  yarder  is  in 
actual  operation;  the  amount  of  overtime  to  be  allowed  is  at  the  option  of 
the  foreman. 

6.  "The  crews  must  go  out  when  ordered  by  the  foreman;  if  not  the  day 
will  be  charged  up  against  them  as  a  yarding  day. 

7.  "The  premium  will  apply  to  all  men  handling  logs  from  the  time  the 
logs  are  hitched  to  in  the  woods  until  they  are  dumped  in  the  water  to  be  shipped 
to  market.  It  will  not  apply  to  construction  men,  shop  men  or  any  men  that 
are  not  connected  with  the  yarding  or  train  crews.  A  different  system  of 
premiums  will  be  applied  to  fallers  and  buckers. 

STANDARD    OF   PREMIUMS^ 

"Men  receiving  the  following  pay  per  day  will  receive  the  premium  per 
thousand  feet  opposite  the  respective  amount. 

"$5.00  per  day 9c  per  thousand  feet 

"$4.75         "      8^c 

"$4.50         "     8c 

"$4.00         "     7c 

1  This  method  of  distributing  premiums  is  ba.sed  on  a  principle  similar  to 
that  used  in  the  Brown's  Bay  System.  The  chief  difference  is  that  the  pre- 
mium paid  is  stated  in  cents  per  thousand  feet,  log  scale,  while  the  Brown's 
Bay  System  allots  the  premium  on  the  basis  of  percentages. 


46  LOGGING 

"$3.75         "     6|c  per  thousand  fset 

"$3.50         "     6c 

"$3.25         "     5^c 

"$3.00         "     5c 

"$2.75         "     4^c  "  " 

"$2.50         "      4c  "  " 

"$2.25         "      3^c  "  " 

"$2.00         "      3c  "  " 

"To  illustrate:  If  the  standard  for  yarder  No.  1  is  1500  thousand  feet 
for  the  month  of  April  and  this  yarder  puts  in  1700  thousand  feet,  then  all 
of  the  men  who  have  complied  with  the  above  requirements  will  receive  in 
addition  to  their  wages  the  premium  on  200  thousand  feet  of  logs,  or,  for  in- 
stance, if  a  man  receives  $3.00  per  day,  he  will  get  $10  premium  in  addition 
to  his  wages. 

"The  train  crews  wiU  receive  their  premiums  on  the  above  basis  of  one 
yarder;  if  they  haul  for  two  yarders  their  proportion  will  be  one-half  of  the 
above  scale;    if  for  three  yarders,  one-third,  etc.,  *  *  *  ." 

Some  bonus  plans  used  by  the  logging  industry  determine  the 
volume  on  which  the  premium  shall  be  paid  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  above,  but  instead  of  paying  a  bonus  of  a  certain  number 
of  cents  per  thousand  feet  log  scale  for  all  timber  over  the  base, 
the  premium  is  determined  by  increasing  the  guaranteed  daily 
wage  1  per  cent  for  each  10,000  feet  log  scale,  monthly  average, 
above  the  base.  Thus,  if  the  daily  average  of  the  crew  during 
the  month  was  20,000  feet  log  scale  above  the  base,  then  an  em- 
ployee would  receive  a  2  per  cent  bonus  on  his  daily  wage. 
Thus  a  workman  whose  daily  guaranteed  wage  was  $5  would  re- 
ceive a  total  of  $5.10  per  day. 

When  the  bonus  system  has  been  fairly  applied  it  has  produced 
results  which,  in  general,  have  been  satisfactory  to  the  employer 
and  the  employees,  because  the  former  has  secured  greater  out- 
put from  a  given  amount  of  equipment  at  a  reduced  cost  and  the 
latter  has  been  able  to  earn  a  higher  wage  than  was  possible  under 
the  hour  or  day  basis.  One  firm  reported  an  increase  of  40  per 
cent  in  the  output  of  yarding  crews  after  the  introduction  of  a 
bonus  system  with  an  average  bonus  to  workmen  of  20  per  cent 
of  their  wage.  One  drawback  to  the  system  which  was  apparent 
on  some  operations  was  that  the  workmen,  in  their  zeal  to  earn 
a  high  bonus,  put  in  long  hours  and  within  a  period  of  a  few  months 
were  forced  to  lay  off  in  order  to  recuperate.  This  disrupted  the 
crews,  since  the  best  men  were  the  ones  who  were  forced  to  cease 
work.     This  objection  possibly  may  be  overcome  by  setting  a 


FOREST  LABOR  47 

maximum  standard  for  a  day's  work,  above  which  a  bonus  will 
not  be  paid.  In  this  manner  the  workmen  will  be  encouraged 
to  do  a  good  day's  work,  but  will  not  have  an  incentive  to  overtax 
themselves  physically. 

Felling  and  log-making  bonus  systems  on  the  Pacific  Coast  have 
been  developed  along  lines  quite  different  from  those  for  yard- 
ing and  transporting  logs.  One  system  has  taken  as  a  base  for 
daily  output  a  given  number  of  square  feet  cross-section  of  cuts 
made.  This  method  is  more  equitable  than  payment'  on  the 
basis  of  the  number  of  feet  log  scale  cut,  since  it  eliminates  the 
lengths  of  logs  into  which  the  bole  is  divided.  The  general 
procedure  is  to  establish  a  certain  number  of  square  feet  of  end 
area  as  a  day's  work,  for  which  a  standard  wage  is  paid,  and  to 
pay  for  all  output  above  this  base  at  a  rate  per  square  foot  equal 
to  one-half  that  paid  for  the  base  output.  Thus,  if  the  daily 
base  is  70  square  feet,  the  daily  guaranteed  wage  $2.80,  and  the 
daily  average  output  85  square  feet,  the  faller  or  backer  would 

receive  ^ ^ '—  or  30  cents  per  day  bonus.     The  work  of 

each  crew  or  man  is  scaled  daily  and  the  output,  in  square  feet, 
calculated  from  the  data  obtained.  The  results  have  proved 
satisfactory,  since  inefficient  workmen  who  cannot  earn  a  bonus 
soon  leave,  greater  output  per  man  or  crew  is  secured,  and  the 
workmen  make  a  higher  wage  than  is  possible  under  a  straight  day 
system. 

Objections  to  a  bonus  system  for  felling  timber  have  been  raised, 
because  there  is  a  tendency  towards  increased  speed  which  often 
causes  more  breakage  and  waste,  since  output,  rather  than  quality, 
is  the  goal.^ 

The  common  form  of  payment  for  certain  forms  of  logging 
work,  such  as  felling  and  log-making,  in  some  parts  of  the  country, 
especially  in  the  South,  is  on  the  basis  of  the  thousand  feet,  log 
scale.     Where  this  method  is  not  used  the  basis  may  be  the  log, 

*  A  novel  suggestion  for  the  elimination  of  the  waste  due  to  breakage  and 
other  causes  is  the  payment  of  a  bonus  to  the  fallers  for  all  timber  saved  over 
and  above  the  average  amount.  For  example,  if  the  average  feUing  loss  due 
to  breakage  is  10  per  cent  of  the  merchantable  volume  of  the  stand,  the  felling 
crew  will  be  paid  1  per  cent  of  the  stumpage  value  for  all  stumpage  saved 
below  the  base.  Thus,  if  a  crew  had  .5  per  cent  lo.ss  only,  their  bonus  would 
be  5  per  cent  of  the  stumpage  value  of  the  timber  saved.  See  Canada  Lumber- 
man and  Wood  Worker,  Toronto,  Ontario,  Jan.  1,  1916,  page  36. 


,/ 


if,  C.  State  Collets* 

48  LOGGING 

tree,  number  of  saw  cuts  made,  or  the  "task."  These  methods 
do  not  stimulate  close  utilization,  because  quantity  rather  than 
quality  is  the  goal.  There  may  be  a  conscious  effort  to  avoid  cut- 
ting rough  top  logs  which  require  much  swamping,  and  often  tops 
may  be  broken  in  felling  in  order  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  cut- 
ting top  logs  of  small  diameter,  especially  when  the  log  scale  used 
penalizes  the  workman  by  giving  him  too  low  values  for  small 
logs.  The  remedies  for  this  condition  are  close  supervision  and 
the  establishment  of  the  felling  and  log-making  both  on  a  quantity 
and  a  quality  basis. 

The  so-called  "task"  system  is  applied  to  certain  forms  of 
logging  work,  such  as  laying  and  taking  up  steel  on  logging  rail- 
roads. The  principle  of  this  system  is  the  payment  of  a  given 
wage  for  a  given  amount  of  work,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  the 
workmen  are  free  to  use  their  time  as  they  see  fit.  For  work  other 
than  the  standard,  the  workmen  receive  additional  pay.  Other 
forms  of  work  which  are  sometimes  done  by  the  task  system  are 
skidding  with  animals,  and  loading  logs  upon  cars,  for  which 
weekly  standards  of  work  are  established.  The  workmen  then 
have  such  free  time  at  the  end  of  the  week  as  remains  after  their 
task  is  completed. 

Contract  basis. ^  Contract  work  is  common  in  many  parts  of 
the  country,  especially  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  a 
satisfactory  method  where  labor  is  inefficient  or  where  liability 
laws  are  unfavorable  to  the  employer.  The  system  in  some 
regions  covers  the  entire  field  of  mill  stocking,  although  usually 
it  is  applied  only  to  felling  and  log-making,  skidding,  hauling, 
and  railroad  grade  construction.  The  last  is  almost  invariably 
a  single  contract,  but  the  others  may  be  handled  together.  For 
instance,  one  contractor  may  agree  to  deliver  the  logs  along  a 
railroad  or  on'  the  banks  of  some  stream  or  other  body  of  water. 
The  common  basis  of  payment  for  contract  work  is  the  thousand 
feet,  log  scale.  Lumbermen  may  furnish  the  contractors  with 
tools,  supplies  and  all  facilities  needed,  although  this  is  not  a 
common  practice.  Log-cutting  by  contract  is  rarely  satisfactory 
for  forests  under  management,  since  the  log-cutters  will  not  go 
into  the  tops  because  of  the  swamping  required  and  also  because 

1  For  legal  decisions  which  have  reference  to  logging  contracts  see  The 
Essentials  of  American  Timber  Law,  by  J.  P.  Kinney.  John  Wiley  &  Sons, 
Inc.,  New  York,  1917. 


FOREST   LABOR  49 

the  small  top  logs  give  a  low  scale  when  measured  by  most  log 
rules. 

Minor  contracts  are  usually  verbal,  but  those  involving  an  ex- 
tensive amount  of  work  are  in  written  form.  A  certain  per  cent 
of  the  contract  price  often  is  witheld  until  the  work  is  satisfactorily 
completed. 

A  form  of  contracting  which  has  become  more  or  less  common 
during  recent  years  in  the  Inland  Empire  is  known  as  "Gipo" 
logging.  A  crew  of  from  four  to  eight  men  contract  to  put  logs 
on  the  skidway  on  the  thousand  foot  log  scale  basis.  This  method 
has  proved  a  success,  especially  during  periods  when  labor  is 
scarce  and  wages  high,  since  the  output  per  man  is  often  nearly 
twice  as  great  as  that  of  men  working  on  day-wage  basis. 

Loggers  who  contract  the  major  part  of  their  work  often  find  it 
advantageous  to  maintain  small  crews  of  their  own,  in  order  that 
they  may  have  a  basis  for  determining  what  is  a  fair  contract  price 
for  logging  under  their  conditions.  Company  crews  also  tend  to 
prevent  the  arbitrary  dictation  of  prices  by  contractors,  since  the 
company  is  prepared  to  do  a  portion  of  its  work,  and  has  the  nucleus 
of  a  logging  organization  which  may  be  expanded  readily,  if 
necessary. 

A  written  contract  stating  the  exact  conditions  of  labor,  es- 
pecially with  reference  to  terms  of  employment,  hours  of  labor, 
wages,  pay  days,  charges  for  board  and  medical  attention,  and 
the  equipment  furnished,  have  proved  desirable  in  some  cases. 

PAYMENT    FOR    SERVICES 

Many  lumber  companies  operate  commissaries  or  general 
stores  in  connection  with  their  logging  work.  Since  it  is  to  their 
advantage  to  have  the  trade  of  their  employees,  cash  usually  is 
disbursed  only  on  specified  pay  days.  ]\Ieanwhile,  employees 
may  obtain  metal  trading  checks  or  coupon  books,  usually  the 
latter,  to  the  value  of  their  credit,  which  are  accepted  at  face 
value  at  the  company  store.  Checks  or  coupons  are  rarely 
honored  when  presented  by  those  who  are  not  employees  or  mem- 
bers of  their  families,  the  company  in  this  manner  preventing  the 
acceptance  of  the  coupons  by  other  merchants. 

Weekly  or  semi-monthly  payments  are  the  rule  in  most  regions^, 

'  During  the  war,  when  labor  was  scarce,  some  companies  solicited  labor 
on  the  basis  of  "everyday  a  payday";  that  Ls,  any  employee  might  draw, 
daily,  the  full  amount  due  him  for  wages. 


50  LOGGING 

for  many  states  have  passed  laws  specifying  the  period  which 
may  elapse  between  pay  days.  In  some  regions  where  logging 
operations  are  remote  from  settlements,  payment  of  wages  due 
may  be  deferred  until  the  close  of  the  season  or  until  the  workman 
leaves  the  employ  of  the  company.  Settlement  is  then  made 
by  check  or  by  order  on  the  head  office  or  on  some  store  or  bank 
located  at  the  nearest  accessible  point  to  the  operation^ 

FACTORS   WHICH    INFLUENCE    WAGES 

The  wage  paid  for  forest  work  depends  largely  on  the  following 
factors : 

(1)  The  amount  of  labor  available.  As  in  all  industries,  the 
labor  cost  fluctuates  with  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  labor. 
Although  some  features  of  logging  require  workmen  with  a  special 
knowledge  of  their  trade,  the  demand  is  chiefly  for  more  or  less  un- 
skilled labor.  In  any  case,  loggers,  both  skilled  and  unskilled, 
easily  adjust  themselves  to  various  other  forms  of  industrial 
work;  therefore,  the  logging  industry,  in  times  of  a  general  labor 
shortage,  finds  it  necessary  to  raise  its  wage  standards  in  line 
with  that  of  other  industries. 

(2)  The  degree  of  skill  required.  There  is  marked  difference 
in  the  degree  of  skill  required  of  loggers  in  the  various  forest 
regions,  depending  chiefly  upon  the  extent  to  which  machinery 
is  used  to  move  the  timber  from  the  stump  to  the  main  trans- 
portation system  which  carries  it  to  market.  Where  animal 
logging  prevails,  a  high  degree  of  mechanical  skill  is  not  required, 
while  on  operations  where  machinery  is  used,  skilled  mechanics 
are  necessary  to  operate  and  maintain  the  machines,  and  a  rea- 
sonable degree  of  mechincal  skill  is  essential  for  the  members  of 
the  yarding  crew.  Consequently,  the  average  wage  commanded 
by  power  loggers  often  is  greater  than  that  received  by  those 
who  are  employed  on  operations  where  machinery  is  not  used 
extensively. 

(3)  The  conditions  under  which  labor  is  performed.     Laborers 
1  The  laws  of  many  states  include  statutes  giving  a  lien  on  logs  to  those 

who  may  perform  labor  in  connection  with  the  preparation,  and  the  transpor- 
tation to  market,  of  forest  products.  These  so-called  statutory  liens  do  not 
imply  possession  of  the  logs  at  the  time  labor  was  performed,  but  do  neces- 
sitate the  attachment  of  the  property  before  the  lien  can  be  enforced.  For  a 
comprehensive  discussion  of  this  question  see  The  Essentials  of  American 
Timber  Law,  by  J.  P.  Kinney.     John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  New  York,  1917. 


FOREST  LABOR  51 

prefer  to  work  near  settlements,  and  may  demand  higher  wages 
on  remote  operations,  and  also  where  low  stumps,  brush  disposal 
and  other  restrictions  demand  the  exercise  of  greater  care  and  effort 
than  usual. 

(4)  The  perquisites  offered.  A  better  class  of  labor  can  be 
secured,  with  a  minimum  of  turnover,  when  camp  conditions 
and  surroundings  are  made  attractive  for  the  laborers  and  their 
families,  and  when  adequate  hospital,  accident  insurance,  school, 
church,  and  amusement  facilities  are  provided.  High-grade 
workmen  seek  permanent  employment  under  attractive  conditions, 
in  preference  to  a  higher  wage  gained  by  working  where  the  phys- 
ical welfare  of  employees  is  neglected. 

EFFICIENCY 

The  efficiency  of  labor  is  measured  by  the  number  of  one-man 
hours  taken  to  perform  a  given  task.  The  conditions  under  which 
logging  is  carried  on  are  so  diverse  that  there  is  a  wide  range  in 
the  labor  requirements  even  in  a  given  region;  consequently, 
there  is  no  standard  for  the  industry  as  a  whole. 

Among  the  factors  influencing  the  labor  required  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

(1)  Topography.  The  more  unfavorable  the  ground  condi- 
tions under  which  men  must  perform  their  labor,  the  greater  the 
labor  expended  in  accomplishing  a  given  task,  other  things  being 
equal.  A  level  or  gently  rolling  country,  with  a  smooth  solid 
bottom  free  from  underbrush  and  windfalls,  offers  the  most 
advantageous  condition.  Swampy  or  rough  bottom,  heavy  under- 
brush, and  rugged  topography  necessitate  added  labor  to  perform 
a  given  task. 

(2)  Climatic  conditions.  Extremes  of  heat  or  cold  and  an 
undue  precipitation  of  rain  and  snow  reduce  the  output  of  forest 
laborers,  and  thus  increase  the  amount  of  one-man  hours  required 
to  perform  a  given  task. 

(3)  Stand  of  timber  per  acre  and  size  of  timber.  Light  stands 
of  timber  often  require  more  labor,  to  harvest  a  unit  of  timber, 
than  stands  running  from  medium  to  heavy,  because  less  timber 
can  be  logged  in  a  given  time  by  a  given  crew.  The  labor  cost  of 
primary  transportation  also  may  be  greater,  because  of  the  limited 
amount  of  timber  available  to  a  given  set  of  improvements. 

(4)  Size  of  the  timber.     Small  timber  is  more  expensive  to 


52  LOGGING 

log  than  medium-sized  or  large  timber,  since  a  greater  number 
of  pieces  are  required  to  scale  one  thousand  board  feet,  and  various 
operations  connected  with  the  preparation  of  the  logs  and  their 
movement  to  the  primary  transportation  system  are  functions  of 
the  piece,  rather  than  of  volume. 

Studies  made  in  California  showed  that  on  the  operations  in- 
vestigated "it  costs  three  times  as  much  per  M.  B.  M.  to  make 
logs  from  18-inch  as  from  48-inch  trees,  and  that  below  that 
diameter  the  costs  undoubtedly  rise  rapidly  with  each  further 
decrease  in  size.  "^  Studies  made  in  the  Appalachian  region 
indicate  that  the  time  required  to  skid  logs  with  animals  for  a 
distance  of  1000  feet,  increases  very  rapidly  with  a  decrease  in 
the  log  size.  Thus,  to  skid  6-inch  logs  requires  5.5  times,  and 
12-inch  logs  2.5  times  as  many  hours  per  thousand  feet  log  scale 
as  24-inch  logs.^ 

Very  large  logs  cannot  be  handled  by  an  operator  equipped  to 
move  medium-sized  timber,  except  at  an  additional  cost  for  labor, 
since  the  size  of  such  logs  often  necessitates  the  loss  of  much  time 
in  adjusting  the  equipment  to  do  the  work. 

(5)  Form  of  the  trees.  Short  boles  and  heavy  tops  require 
extra  labor  in  log-making,  because  it  may  only  be  possible  to 
secure  one  log  as  a  result  of  the  felling  operation,  and  the  labor 
involved  in  swamping  limbs  often  is  equal  in  amount  to  that 
expended  on  a  tree  of  longer  bole  from  which  several  logs  could 
be  cut. 

(6)  Conservative  logging  requirements.  The  enforcement  of 
low  stump,  top  lopping,  brush  piling,  brush  burning,  and  other 
conservative  logging  regulations  may  cause  an  increase  in  the 
amount  of  labor  required  to  produce  one  thousand  board  feet 
of  logs.  There  are  conditions,  however,  in  which  brush  disposal 
in  dense  stands  of  white  pine  has  facilitated  the  skidding  opera- 
tions, so  that  the  cost  of  the  brush  disposal  has  been  more  than 
offset  by  cheaper  skidding. 

Studies  of  the  productivity  of  labor  in  the  logging  industry 
were  made  in  1915,  covering  supervision  and  general  expense, 
felling  and  log-making,  skidding,  yarding  and  loading,  transpor- 

^  See  The  Relative  Cost  of  Making  Logs  from  Small  and  Large  Timber, 
by  Donald  Bruce.  Bui.  339,  College  of  Agriculture,  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Berkeley,  California,  1922. 

'^  See  Cost  of  Cutting  Large  and  Small  Timber,  by  W.  W.  Ashe.  Southern 
Lumberman,  Dec.  16,  1916,  p.  91. 


FOREST  LABOR  53 

tation  and  unloading,  and  maintenance  of  transportation.^  For 
the  items  mentioned  there  was  a  variation  among  different  opera- 
tions ranging  from  5.9  one-man  hours  on  a  white  pine  operation 
to  25.24  hours  on  a  hardwood  operation.  The  distribution  of 
total  time  by  processes,  on  individual  operations,  showed  minor 
differences  only.  In  other  words,  the  amount  of  total  time  re- 
quired from  tree  to  pond  may  vary  within  wide  limits  in  various 
operations,  and  in  the  different  regions,  yet  each  process  requires 
about  the  same  proportion  of  the  total  time  expended. 

On  eleven  operations,  an  average  of  68  per  cent  of  the  total  time 
was  devoted  to  the  movement  of  the  logs  from  stump  to  pond, 
including  skidding,  yarding,  loading,  unloading,  and  maintenance 
of  transportation.  Mixed  hardwoods  showed  the  lowest  per- 
centage, namely  58.8,  of  time  devoted  to  this  work,  while  for 
mixed  pine  and  hardwoods  the  percentage  was  the  highest, 
namely  81.9.  Felling  and  log-making  operations  were  lowest  in 
Douglas  fir,  18  per  cent,  highest  in  redwood,  42.2  per  cent,  with 
an  average  for  the  eleven  operations  of  28.49  per  cent.  Supervision 
ranged  from  1.8  per  cent  in  shortleaf  pine  to  5.1  per  cent  in 
mixed  pine  and  hardwoods,  with  an  average  for  all  of  3.05. 

The  data  for  operations  in  various  regions,  weighted  on  the  basis 
of  the  log  scale  production,  is  shown  in  Table  V. 

Since  the  exact  conditions  under  which  the  data  were  secured 
are  not  stated,  the  figures  in  the  table  may  be  taken  as  suggestive 
only,  but  they  are  of  value  as  indicating  in  a  relative  way  the 
varj'ing  conditions  in  the  several  regions  and  the  proportion  of 
the  time  usually  devoted  to  each  process. 

The  marked  differences  in  the  time  required  are  due  to  various 
factors,  outside  of  the  efficiency  of  the  labor  employed,  among 
which  are  the  size,  character,  and  stand  of  timber,  and  the  topog- 
raphy, all  of  which  vary  widely  with  the  species  shown  in  the 
table. 

UNIONS^ 

The  chief  center  of  organized  labor  in  the  logging  industry  is 

*  See  Wages  and  Hours  of  Labor  in  the  Lumber,  Millwork,  and  Furniture 
Industries,  1915.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Bui.  No. 
225,  1918. 

2  See  Lumber:  Its  Manufacture  and  Distribution,  by  Ralph  C.  Bryant. 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  New  York,  for  a  more  comprehensive  discussion  of 
labor  unions  in  the  lumber  industry. 


54 


LOGGING 


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FOREST  LABOR 


55 


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56 


LOGGING 


in  the  territory  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  especially  in  the 
Inland  Empire  and  in  the  Northwest.  Various  sporadic  efforts 
to  unionize  loggers  in  other  sections  have  been  unsuccessful.  The 
Loyal  Legion  of  Loggers  and  Lumbermen  (4  L's),  first  organized 
in  1917,  is  the  dominating  labor  organization  in  the  logging 
industry  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  in  the  Inland  Empire. 


ORGANIZATION 

The  division  of  responsibility  on  a  typical  logging  operation 
on  the  Pacific  Coast  is  shown  on  page  55,  that  for  a  southern  yellow 
pine  railroad  operation  on  page  56,  and  for  an  operation  in  the 
Northeast  on  page  56.  Various  modifications  of  the  above  may 
be  found  on  individual  operations,  but  in  general  the  scheme  of 
organization  is  as  outlined. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  A  SOUTHERN  RAILROAD  LOGGING 
OPERATION 


'  Location    en-      Grading  contractors 

Laborers 

gineer  (main 

line  railroad) 

Woods  fore- 

Team boss 

Teamsters 

man 

Swampers 

Felling  contractor 
Camp  blacksmith 

Woods  sawyers 

General 

Barn  man 

Manager 

Grading  boss  (spurs) 

Laborers 

Loader  foreman  and 

Loader  crew 

Train  master 

engineer 

Steel  crew  foreman 

Steel  crew 

Train  conductors 

Train  crews 

Section  boss 

Section  crews 

[Shop  foreman  (mill) 

Shop  crew 

ORGANIZ 

ATION  OF  A   NORTHERN   LOGGING   OPERATION 

Scaler  and  clerk 

Sawyers 

Saw  boss 

Saw  filer 

Road  foreman 

Toters 

Woods  fore- 

Cook 

Flunkies 

man 

General 

Teamsters 

Manager 

Skidding  foreman 
Road  repair  crew 

Swampers 
Skidwaymen 
Barn  man 

Landing  boss 

Landing  crew 

Drive  foreman     Log  drivers  (small 

streams) 

FOREST  LABOR  57 

workmen's  compensation  acts 

For  many  years  the  responsibility  of  compensating  laborers 
injured  in  the  performance  of  their  work  was  regulated  by  Em- 
ployers' Liability  Laws.  These  held  the  employer  liable  for 
accidents  which  occurred  by  reason  of  his  failure  to  conform  to 
the  laws.  Lawsuits  were  frequent  and  usually  proved  expensive 
to  all  concerned,  often  resulting,  on  the  one  hand,  in  a  denial  by 
the  courts  of  compensation  to  parties  to  whom  it  was  due,  and 
on  the  other,  in  granting  heavy  damages  to  those  who  were  not 
entitled  to  them. 

The  employers  protected  their  interests  through  liability 
insurance  companies,  but  a  great  waste  of  money  resulted  since 
only  from  29  to  50  per  cent  of  the  premiums  paid  reached  the 
injured  employees  or  their  dependents  and  fully  40  per  cent  of 
this  was  expended  by  the  injured  party  for  attorneys'  fees. 

Compensation  through  liability  laws  has  tended  to  create  an 
antagonistic  feeling  between  employer  and  employee,  and  for 
many  years  this  method  of  settlement  was  regarded  as  unsatis- 
factory. 

Many  states  have  abolished  the  liability  laws  and  have  passed 
Workmen's  Compensation  Acts,  which  provide,  without  trial  by 
court  or  jury,  for  the  pa3aTient  of  specified  sums  for  injuries  re- 
ceived. The  injured  workman  secures  a  definite  compensation 
without  legal  expense  and  without  regard  to  the  cause  of  the 
accident,  provided  his  injury  was  not  self-inflicted.  In  return, 
he  waives  all  rights  to  the  common  law  defences  of  "contributory 
negligence,"  "assumption  of  risk,"  and  the  "fellow  servant 
rule,"  which  were  prominent  features  in  litigation  under  the  lia- 
bility laws. 

A  further  advance  in  accident  prevention  has  been  the  passage, 
by  some  states,  of  State  Safety  Laws,  which  provide  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  standards  for  the  various  industries,  such  as, 
(1)  a  safe  place  in  which  the  employee  may  work,  (2)  the  proper 
safeguarding  of  machinery,  (3)  the  education  of  the  employee 
by  safety  engineers  in  order  that  laborers  may  be  fully  aware  of 
the  dangers  incident  to  their  occupation. 

The  importance  of  the  educational  feature  has  received  much  at- 
tention in  recent  years.  It  is  stated  by  some  authorities  on  accident 
prevention,  that  three-fourths  of  all  deaths  and  serious  injuries 
in  industry  are  preventable,  but  that  more  than  one-half  of  this 


58  LOGGING 

reduction  must  be  accomplished  through  other  than  mechanical 
means,  chiefly  through  organization  and  education. 

There  has  been  a  marked  advance,  in  recent  years,  in  "First 
Aid"  facilities  in  all  forest  regions.  This  has  taken  the  form  of 
training  one  or  more  men  in  each  crew  in  first  aid  procedure  and 
in  giving  general  instruction  to  all  workmen  at  occasional  inter- 
vals. "First  aid"  medical  kits  also  are  provided  on  most  opera- 
tions, and  an  injured  employee  now  receives  some  form  of  simple 
surgical  treatment  pending  his  transfer  to  a  point  where  skilled 
help  may  be  secured. 

MEDICAL   ATTENTION 

Many  logging  companies  now  provide  medical  service  for  their 
employees  and,  in  some  cases,  hospital  facilities,  especially  when 
the  logging  operations  are  within  reach  of  the  manufacturing 
plant.  The  latter  practice  is  quite  universal  where  the  operator 
is  both  a  logger  and  manufacturer,  and  controls  the  town  in  which 
the  manufacturing  plant  is  located. 

The  medical  service  is  supported  wholly  or  partially  by  fees 
which  are  collected  from  the  employees.  These  fees  provide 
medical  attention  for  the  workman  and  his  family  for  ordinary 
ailments  and  for  accidents.  As  a  rule,  a  hospital  fee  designed  to 
cover  the  cost  of  board  is  charged  for  those  who  use  its  services. 

The  medical  department  also  supervises  camp  sanitation,  in 
addition  to  its  regular  duties. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO    CHAPTER  III 

Industrial    Accident    Commission,    California:     Logging    and    Sawmill 

Safety  Orders,  effective  March  15,  1917.     The  Timberman,  Feb.  1917, 

pp.  48T  to  48X. 
Industrial  Insurance  Department,  State  of  Washington:   First  Annual 

Report,  for  the  twelve  months  ending  September  30,  1912.     Olympia, 

Washington. 
Pratt,  C.  S.:    Washington  Workmen's  Compensation  Act  is  Successful  in 

its  Operation.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  74-77. 
Sparks,  J.  E.  and  Forest,  E.  H.  T.:  Lumbermen's  Safety  First  —  First 

Aid  Manual.     Pub.  for  Industrial  Dept.,  International  Comm.  of  Y. 

M.  C.  A.,  Association  Press,  New  York. 
State  Safety  Board  of  Washington:  Safety  Standards  for  Logging. 

The  Timberman,  April,  1920,  p.  45  to  48. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics:  Workmen's  Compensa- 
tion Laws  of  the  United  States  and  Foreign  Countries,  Bui.  No.  126, 

Washington,  Dec.  23,  1913. 


FOREST  LABOR  59 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor:  Descriptions  of  Occupations,  Logging  Camps  and 
Sawmills.     Washington,  1918. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics:  Wages  and  Hours  of 
Labor  in  the  Lumber,  Millwork,  and  Furniture  Industries,  1915.  Bui. 
No.  225.     Washington,  Feb.  1918. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics:  Industrial  Survey  in 
Selected  Industries  in  the  United  States,  1919,  Bui.  No.  265,  Washington, 
May,  1920,  pp.  348  to  356. 

U.  S.  Deft  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics:  Workmen's  Compensa- 
tion Legislation  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  Bui.  No.  272.  Wash- 
ington, Jan.  1921. 


CHAPTER   IV 

CAMPS 

The  early  logging  camps  had  crude  buildings  with  no  modern 
conveniences,  and  the  men  were  given  very  plain  fare.  Present- 
day  loggers  no  longer  crowd  the  workers  in  small,  unsanitary 
structures  and  feed  them  upon  poorly  cooked  food,  because  work- 
men demand  better  living  conditions.  Many  states  and  also 
various  provinces  in  Canada  have  passed  laws  which  are  designed 
to  improve  sanitary  conditions  in  industrial  camps  and  which 
require  the  employer  to  observe  standards  which  will  conserve 
public  health. 

CAMP    LOCATION 

The  general  requirements  for  a  suitable  camp  depend  upon  the 
type  of  logging  operation  and  upon  the  character  of  labor  employed. 
The  chief  requirements  for  a  camp  for  snow  logging  are: 

(1)  A  central  location  with  reference  to  a  large  tract.  It  is 
not  considered  profitable  to  walk  men  more  than  1|  miles  from 
camp  to  work,  or  from  one  watershed  to  another,  because  they 
consume  too  much  time  and  energy.  It  is  cheaper  to  construct 
new  camps  if  there  is  a  large  amount  of  timber,  or  a  secondary 
camp  if  the  quantity  is  small.  The  camp  should  be  located  so 
that  the  main-haul  or  two-sled  road  will  run  through  the  camp 
lot  on  its  way  to  the  landing.  Teamsters  then  lose  no  time  in 
getting  to  work  in  the  morning,  returning  to  feed  animals,  and 
getting  them  to  the  stable  at  night  after  a  hard  day's  work. 
During  the  hauling  season,  time  is  an  important  factor,  and  where 
long  hours  are  observed  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  hus- 
band the  strength  of  animals  and  men. 

(2)  A  level,  well-drained  camp  site  from  1  to  2  acres  in  extent. 

(3)  A  stream  of  pure  running  water  near  at  hand  (for  drink- 
ing, cooking,  laundry  purposes  and  stock  watering)  and  so  located 
that  it  will  not  be  contaminated  by  the  camp  sewage. 

(4)  Accessibility  to  the  source  of  supplies.     This  is  an  impor- 

60 


CAMPS.  61 

tant  factor,  although  secondary  to  proper  location  with  reference 
to  the  timber  and  main  haul. 

The  requirements  for  a  camp  site  for  a  railroad  operation  are 
as  follows: 

(1)  A  well-drained  site,  with  no  swamps  or  other  mosquito- 
breeding  spots  in  the  vicinity,  because  railroad  camps  are  operated 
during  the  warm  season  when  there  is  the  greatest  danger  from 
malaria. 

(2)  Location  with  reference  to  a  natural  supply  of  pure  water 
is  secondary  to  good  drainage,  since  drinking  water  is  either 
hauled  to  the  camp  in  tank  cars,  or  can  be  obtained  by  driving 
wells  at  the  camp  site.  It  is  desirable,  however,  to  have  a  running 
stream  in  the  vicinity  from  which  water  for  the  stock  and  for 
laundry  purposes  may  be  secured. 

(3)  Accessibility  to  the  operation  is  essential,  unless  the  men 
can  be  transported  to  and  from  their  labor.  In  the  southern 
pineries,  a  large  percentage  of  the  workmen  on  logging  operations 
are  married,  and  there  is  an  increasing  tendency  to  establish  more 
or  less  permanent  camps,  in  order  that  more  conveniences  may 
be  provided  for  the  loggers'  families.  The  woods  crews  are  then 
hauled  to  and  from  work  by  train. 

(4)  A  sufficient  area  of  level  ground  to  permit  the  construc- 
tion of  the  spur  tracks  required  for  moving  the  houses,  set-out 
switches  for  log  cars,  and  a  railroad  "Y. " 

Floating  camps  are  placed  in  bayous  and  canals  in  proximity 
to  the  operation.  Pure  drinking  water  cannot  be  secured  from 
these  streams  and  provision  must  be  made  for  a  boiled  or  distilled 
supply.  Camp  location  under  such  circumstances  is  governed 
almost  wholly  by  accessibility. 

TYPES    OF    CAMPS 

Log  Camps.  —  Typical  buildings  are  usually  one-storied  and  are* 
constructed  crib-fashion  of  logs,  preferably  of  conifers  with  the 
slightest  taper  obtainable.  These  are  notched  at  the  corners 
to  hold  them  together  and  to  reduce  the  chink  space,  which  is 
filled  with  moss  and  clay,  or  mortar.  The  floors  in  the  living 
rooms  are  made  of  hewed  timbers  or  rough  lumber,  and  the  roofs 
are  covered  with  "shakes"  or  prepared  roofing.  The  doors  are 
made  from  rough  boards,  and  a  few  windows  furnish  light  and  aid 


62 


LOGGING 


in  ventilation.  Occasionally  a  framework  on  which  logs  are 
fastened  upright  is  substituted  for  the  crib-work. 

Log  camps  in  the  North  generally  comprise  the  following 
buildings: 

(1)  An  office  and  store,  sometimes  called  a  "van,"  which  is 
the  headquarters  and  the  sleeping  place  of  the  foreman,  camp 
clerk  and  log  scaler.  The  equipment  of  the  room  consists  of 
bunks  for  the  men,  a  few  shelves  on  which  goods  are  displayed, 


Fig.  2.  —  A  Logging  Camp  in  the  Northeast.  The  buildings  from  left  to 
right  are  the  cook  shanty,  bunk  house,  blacksmith  shop,  and  stable. 
Maine. 

and  a  rough  counter  over  which  they  are  sold,  two  or  three  home- 
made chairs,  and  a  box  stove.  The  store  carries  supplies  required 
by  the  woodsmen,  such  as  shoes,  clothing,  tobacco  and  a  few 
drugs.  Occasionally  the  office  is  in  one  of  the  main  buildings. 
(2)  A  cook  shanty  which  houses  the  kitchen  and  dining  depart- 
ment. The  former  usually  is  placed  in  one  end  of  the  building, 
and  the  remaining  space  is  devoted  to  dining  tables  running  length- 
wise or  crosswise  of  the  building.  Benches  are  provided  for 
seats.     A  small  sleeping  room  is  partitioned  off  for  the  cook. 


CAMPS  63 

(3)  A  bunk  house  which  provides  lounging  and  sleeping  quarters 
for  the  men.  Double  bunks,  two  stories  high,  are  built  along  the 
side  wall  and  often  across  the  ends  of  the  building.  Each  bunk 
accommodates  two  men.  Straw  or  hay  may  be  supplied  in  lieu  of 
mattresses.     Blankets  may  or  may  not  be  furnished  by  the  camp. 

Long  wooden  benches,  called  "deacon  seats,"  are  placed  along- 
side of  the  bunks.  A  large  sink  for  washing,  one  or  two  heating 
stoves,  and  a  grindstone  are  also  part  of  the  equipment.  Wires 
for  drying  clothing  are  supended  over  the  stove. 

Ventilation  often  is  secured  by  placing  a  barrel  in  a  hole  in 
the  roof  and  fitting  it  with  a  hinged  head  that  may  be  opened 
and  closed;  if  this  is  not  used,  some  other  crude  arrangement  is 
adopted. 

Cook  shanties  and  bunk  houses  generally  are  separate  build- 
ings, although  in  the  Northeast  they  often  are  only  from  6  to  10 
feet  apart,  and  the  gap  is  covered  with  a  roof,  boarded  up  in  the 
rear  and  used  as  a  storage  place,  called  a  "dingle." 

Two-storied  camps,  having  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  on 
the  lower  floor  and  the  sleeping  quarters  on  the  second  floor, 
are  sometimes  used  in  the  Adirondack  mountains,  although  the 
general  practice  is  to  use  one-storied  buildings. 

(4)  Stables  or  hovels  —  rough  buildings  with  a  good  roof  and 
fairly  tight  sides  —  are  constructed  to  afford  proper  protection  to 
animals.  They  are  equipped  with  stalls,  feed  boxes,  harness 
racks  and  grain  bins.  Each  animal  usually  is  allowed  a  stall 
space  of  5  by  10  feet.  When  a  large  number  are  kept  in  one 
camp,  the  stalls  are  arranged  on  opposite  sides  of  the  building 
with  an  alleyway  in  the  middle  in  which  grain  and  hay  are  stored. 
A  6-foot  runway  is  left  behind  the  animals  to  facilitate  cleaning 
the  barn  and  to  afford  a  passage  for  the  animals  to  and  from 
their  stalls. 

(5)  A  storehouse,  where  surplus  supplies  are  kept.  This  may 
be  a  detached  building,  or  a  room  in  the  cook  shanty  set  aside 
for  this  purpose. 

(6)  A  storage  or  root  cellar  which  is  an  underground  place 
where  vegetables  are  kept.  It  must  be  frost-proof  and  yet  cool 
enough  to  prevent  the  produce  from  spoiling. 

(7)  A  blacksmith  shop  where  horses  are  shod,  and  sleds  and 
other  equipment  made  and  repaired.  If  a  variety  of  work  is 
performed  there  must  a  set  of  iron-  and  wood- working  tools. 


64 


LOGGING 


The  chief  tools  required  in  a  first-class  camp  shop  are: 


1  forge,  complete,  including  bellows 
1  anvil 

3  augers,  1|-,  2-  and  3-inch 

1  thread  cutter  and  an  assortment 
of  dies 

4  hammers 
1  vise 

1  broadax 

2  rasps 

1  coal  shovel 


12  tongs,  assorted 

1  brace  and  an  assortment  of  bits 

1  drill  machine  and  an  assortment  of  bits 

1  bolt  clipper 

1  striking  hammer 

2  monkey  wrenches 

2  two-inch  iron  squares 
1  set  of  horse-shoeing  tools 
1  iron  heating  stove 


Photograph  by  II.  DeForest. 

Fig.  3.  —  a  Two-storied  Logging  Camp.  The  dining  room,  lounging  room 
and  office  are  on  the  ground  floor,  and  the  sleeping  quarters  are  on  the 
upper  floor.     Northern  New  York. 

In   addition,    a   general   assortment   of    cold  chisels,    drawing 
knives,  and  pinchers,  and  an  assortment  of  files  are  kept  on  hand. 
(8)     Sled  storehouses  to  shelter  sleds  and  other  ec}uipment 
during  the  summer  months. 

An  average  crew  for  the  northern  woods  is  about  sixty  men, 
with  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  horses.  A  camp  to  accommo- 
date a  crew  of  sixty  men  and  thirty  horses  would  be  composed  of 
buildings  of  the  following  approximate  sizes: 

Oflice  and  store 16  by  20  feet 

Cook  shanty 35  by  37  feet 

Bunk  house 35  by  37  feet 


CAMPS  65 

Stables  (2) 40  by  40  feet 

Storehouse 16  by  16  feet 

Blacksmith  shop 27  by  27  feet 

Storage  cellar 8  by  12  feet 

Sled  storehouse 10  by  15  feet 

Although  there  is  variation  in  the  area  of  the  ground  floor  of 
all  buildings  used  in  northern  camps,  an  average  of  several 
gives  from  65  to  80  square  feet  per  man.  The  construction  of 
such  camps  requires  one  day's  manual  labor  for  each  15  square 
feet  of  floor  space  and  one  day's  horse  labor  for  each  100  square 
feet  of  floor  space. 

In  some  parts  of  the  North,  especially  where  logging  railroads 
are  used  or  where  lumber  can  easily  be  secured,  log  buildings  have 
been  replaced  Ijy  board  camps  covered  with  tar  paper.  Buildings 
of  this  character  are  torn  down  when  a  camp  site  is  abandoned 
and  the  lumber  is  used  for  buildings  on  a  new  site. 

Portable-house  Camps.  —  The  buildings  are  used  indefinitely 
and  are  moved  from  place  to  place  as  logging  progresses,  being 
placed  on  skids  along  the  main  line  or  a  spur  of  the  logging  rail- 
road. Two  or  three  buildings  grouped  together  may  form  a 
dwelling  for  a  family,  or  singly  they  may  be  fitted  up  as  bunk 
houses  to  shelter  two  or  more  men.  Large  camps  in  the  South 
may  have  100  or  more  houses  and  shelter  from  200  to  400  persons, 
of  whom  only  30  to  50  per  cent  may  be  laborers  in  the  employ  of 
the  logging  company. 

Camps  of  this  character  constitute  small  villages  which  have  a 
school  and  church,  and  sometimes  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  for  the  benefit 
of  the  loggers  and  their  families.  Other  buildings  include  quarters 
for  the  superintendent,  sometimes  a  boarding-house  for  single 
men,  barns  for  the  stock,  a  machine  shop,  storage  houses,  coal 
supply  bins  for  the  locomotives  and  a  commissary  or  store.  The 
store  is  an  important  feature  in  isolated  camps  for  not  only  the 
families  in  camp  but  also  many  of  the  local  inhabitants  secure 
their  supplies  from  this  source.  Stores  of  this  character  often 
carry  a  large  stock  of  goods  and  sell,  monthly,  several  thousand 
dollars'  worth  of  merchandise,  groceries  and  feed. 

When  families  do  not  live  in  camps  the  number  of  buildings 
is  limited  and  may  include,  besides  the  bunk  houses,  an  office 
and  a  cook  shanty.  The  latter  because  of  its  large  size  frequently 
is  not  portable.     A  small  "van"  is  maintained  from  which  the 


66 


LOGGING 


men  can  secure  such  supplies  as  they  need.  Camps  of  this 
character  are  found  in  the  Northwest. 

Portable  houses  must  be  of  a  size  that  can  be  loaded  and  trans- 
ported on  log  cars.  Strength  in  construction  is  an  important 
factor,  because  of  the  frequent  handling  to  which  they  are  sub- 
jected. 

The  buildings  vary  in  size  and  in  mode  of  construction.  In  the 
South  they  often  are  12  by  14  or  10  by  20  feet,  with  a  door  at  each 
end  and  a  window  on  each  side.     The  framework  on  which  the 


Fig.  4.  —  A  Portable-house  Logging  Camp.     The  large  building  in  the  rear 
is  the  camp  store.     Arkansas. 


floor  joists  rest  is  made  of  heavy  timbers,  and  the  side  bracing, 
floor  joists  and  rafters  of  2-  by  44nch  material.  The  siding  may 
be  4-inch  dressed  and  matched  material,  and  the  interiors  of  the 
better  houses  are  ceiled  with  |-inch  ceiling.  A  cheap  grade  of 
flooring  is  used.  The  roof  is  covered  with  sheet  iron  or  some 
patent  roofing  material. 

A  house  of  this  character  10  by  20  feet  in  size  requires  ap- 
proximately 2200  feet  of  lumber,  230  square  feet  of  roofing,  4 
window  sashes,  4  pairs  of  hinges,  2  doors  and  2  doorknobs.  It 
can  be  built  by  four  carpenters  in  two  days.  If  kept  in  good  re- 
pair and  painted  at  intervals  it  will  last  for  many  years. 

Portable  houses  are  loaded  on  log  cars  either  by  animals  or 
log  loaders.     In  loading  a  house  with  the  aid  of  animals,  the  log 


CAMPS  67 

cars  are  "spotted"  on  the  railroad  track  opposite  the  house  to  be 
loaded,  and  skids  are  placed  from  the  house  to  the  car.  One  end  of 
a  cable  is  attached  to  the  house,  the  other  end  being  passed  over 
the  car  and  through  a  block  and  fall  fastened  to  a  tree  or  stump  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  track.  A  team  is  attached  to  the  free 
end  of  the  cable  and  the  house  is  dragged  slowly  up  the  skids 
and  upon  the  car  bunks. 

A  house  can  be  handled  most  expeditiously  with  power  log 
loaders,  in  which  case  there  must  be  a  heavy  6-inch  by  12-inch 
timber  running  lengthwise  or  crosswise  under  the  center  of  the 
building.  An  iron  rod,  1|  inches  in  diameter,  having  a  large  eye 
at  one  end  and  a  screw  thread  at  the  other,  is  run  through  the 
center  of  the  house  from  the  peak  of  the  roof  down  through  the 
hea\y  floor  beam  and  made  fast  with  a  nut.  An  empty  log  car 
and  the  log  loader  having  been  placed  on  the  track  opposite  the 
house,  the  loader  cable  is  fastened  to  the  eye  of  the  rod,  and  the 
whole  structure  is  raised  clear  of  the  foundation,  then  swung 
around  in  position  and  lowered  upon  the  car.  It  is  unloaded  by 
a  reversal  of  the  process.  In  some  cases  the  rods  are  fixed  per- 
manently to  two  corners  of  the  house,  diagonally  opposite,  and 
a  bridle  on  the  loading  cable  is  fastened  to  them  when  the  house 
is  to  be  moved.  The  moving  of  the  house  does  not  necessi- 
tate the  removal  of  the  household  effects. 

Barns  for  animals  at  portable  logging  camps  may  be  either 
semi-permanent  board  structures,  tents,  or  specially  constructed 
cars. 

Board  barns  are  advantageous  in  a  region  where  the  winter 
weather  is  severe,  since  they  can  be  made  tight  and  afford  ample 
shelter  and  comfort  for  the  animals.  They  are  built  of  cheap 
lumber  with  a  board  roof  battened,  or  covered  with  prepared 
roofing.  Such  structures  are  expensive  when  camp  is  moved 
frequently,  because  some  lumber  is  destroyed  each  time  the 
building  is  torn  down,  and  the  cost  of  erection  is  considerable. 

A  form  of  tent  barn  32  feet  wide  with  14-foot  center  poles  and 
7-foot  side  poles,  is  recommended  by  some  loggers  for  temporary 
camps.  Double  stalls  are  made  10  by  10  feet  with  6-foot  alleys 
at  the  rear.  A  barn  of  this  character  made  from  12-ounce  duck 
will  be  serviceable  for  about  two  years. 

Car  barns  are  used  in  some  parts  of  the  South.  A  type  used 
in  Arkansas  has  a  fiat  car  10|  by  40  feet  in  size,  with  standard 


68 


LOGGING 


freight  trucks  on  which  is  l^uilt  a  superstructure  9  feet  from  the 
floor  to  the  eaves,  with  a  gradually  sloping  peaked  roof  covered 
with  tar  paper.  A  passageway  6^  feet  wide  runs  through  the 
center  of  the  car  which  provides  a  place  for  the  storage  of  hay  and 


Fig.  5.  —  An  End  and  Side  View  of  the  Framework  of  a  Car  Barn. 


grain,  and  on  each  side  of  it  feed  and  hay  boxes  are  arranged.  A 
drop  roof,  supported  on  3-  by  6-inch  by  8-foot  scantlings,  covers 
stall  space  10  feet  wide  beyond  which  an  extension  roof  covers 
an  alley.     Four  double  stalls  are  arranged  on  each  side  of  the  car 


CAMPS  69 

separated  by  board  partitions  wired  to  supports  on  the  car  and 
under  the  outer  edge  of  the  drop  roof.  The  stable  floor  is  filled  in 
with  earth  to  give  drainage.  No  protection  other  than  the  short 
extension  roof  is  provided  at  the  rear.  The  car  is  left  on  a 
temporary  track  and  in  one  hour  can  be  dismantled  ready  to 
move. 

A  car  of  this  character  is  serviceable  where  frequent  changes 
of  site  are  necessary  especially  where  permanent  camps  are  used, 
and  the  animals  arc  stabled  near  the  logging  operation.  It  is 
not  suitable  for  a  region  in  which  the  weather  is  severe  during 
the  winter  months,  although  with  a  little  additional  labor  it 
would  be  possible  to  enclose  it  on  the  sides  and  ends.  Corrals 
are  enclosed  with  panels  five  boards  high  and  16  feet  long,  which 
are  wired  to  posts  set  at  proper  intervals.  The  only  labor  re- 
(luired  in  moving  to  a  new  site  is  to  cut  the  wire  and  load  the  panels 
on  flat  cars. 

Car  Camps.  —  Logging  camps  sometimes  consist  of  specially 
designed  cars  fitted  up  as  sleeping  quarters,  kitchen  and  dining 
room,  bath  and  drying  rooms,  reading  room,  office,  commissary, 
blacksmith  shop  and  warehouse.  This  type  of  camp  has  been 
most  highly  developed  in  the  Northwest.  Although  the  first 
cost  of  construction  is  higher  than  for  a  stationary  board  camp, 
car  camps  are  ultimately  cheaper.  The  chief  merits  of  the  car 
camp  on  wheels  are  as  follows  ■} 

(1)  The  camps  may  be  moved  quickly  to  a  new  site  in  case 
of  danger  from  forest  fires. 

(2)  The  annual  depreciation  charge,  including  maintenance, 
is  rarely  more  than  10  per  cent,  which  is  lower  than  for  stationary 
camps. 

(3)  There  is  a  marked  saving  in  wages  when  camp  is  moved, 
since  only  a  few  men  are  required  for  the  operation.  The  log- 
ging crew  need  not  be  called  away  from  work  for  this  purpose. 

(4)  Modern,  sanitary  car  camps  attract  the  best  grade  of 
workmen,  which  insures  a  steady  and  reliable  crew. 

(5)  Camps  may  be  moved  frequently  and  the  men  housed 
near  their  work. 

(6)  A  smaller  site  is  necessary  and,  therefore,  the  expense  of 
preparing  a  new  camp  ground  is  reduced. 

^  See  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region,  by  William  H.  Gibbons,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bui.  No.  711,  Washington,  1918,  pp.  11  and  12. 


70 


LOGGING 


Camp  cars  are  rarely  used  where  families  must  be  housed, 
since  the  initial  investment  is  too  great. 

In  one  Oregon  camp  the  units  are  built  on  34-foot  flat  cars 
which  have  a  superstructure  46  feet  long,  14  feet  wide  and  8| 
feet  high  from  floor  to  eaves.  Ten  cars  provide  accommodations 
for  eighty  men,  five  cars  being  used  for  bunk  houses,  and  one 


Fig.  G.  —  A  Floating  Camp  on  a  Cyi)res,s  Oix^ration.  The  dining  room  and 
office  are  on  the  ground  floor  and  the  sleeping  quarters  are  in  the  upper 
story.     The  building  on  the  left  is  the  camp  store.     Louisiana. 

each  for  kitchen,  store  room,  dining  hall,  headquarters  and  com- 
missary, and  power  and  baths. 

Each  bunk  car  accommodates  sixteen  men  and  is  fitted  up 
with  two-storied  single  bunks  provided  with  springs  and  mat- 
tresses. The  cars  are  steam-heated  and  electric-lighted  and  afford 
comfortable  quarters  for  the  men. 

A  unique  departure  is  the  power  and  bath  car  which  is  fitted 
up  with  a  tub  and  four  shower  baths.  These  are  available  for 
the  use  of  the  men,  under  suitable  regulations.  A  power  plant 
placed  in  this  car  furnishes  light  for  the  camp  and  a  boiler 
furnishes  steam  heat  for  the  buildings. 


CAMPS  71 

The  office,  commissary,  and  foreman's  and  storekeeper's 
quarters  are  placed  in  a  single  car,  while  a  storage  car  holds 
supplies  for  the  commissary  and  package  goods  for  the  kitchen. 

Running  water  is  provided  for  the  camp  whenever  a  gravity 
supply  is  available. 

Floating  Camps.  —  The  camps  used  in  the  cypress  region  on 
pulll)oat  operations  are  built  on  scows,  and  are  usually  two- 
storied  buildings  in  which  the  entire  camp  is  fed  and  housed.  A 
portion  or  all  of  the  lower  floor  may  be  devoted  to  the  kitchen, 
dining  room  and  foreman's  quarters,  while  the  upper  floor  is 
used  for  a  barrack  to  house  the  men  and  is  generally  divided  into 
two  sections  to  accommodate  white  and  colored  laborers. 

A  store  building  is  moored  close  to  the  main  camp  and  the  two 
connected  by  a  gangplank. 

Floating  camps  are  tied  up  along  the  banks  of  bayous  or  of 
canals  near  the  logging  operation,  and  the  men  go  to  and  from 
work  in  dug-out  canoes  called  "pirogues,"  or  in  flat  boats. 

BOARDING    DEPARTMENT 

The  establishment  of  a  commissary  department  for  feeding 
forest  workers  is  necessary  whenever  the  employees  do  not  have 
their  famihes  in  camp.  This  is  true  in  all  regions  except  the 
southern  yellow  pine,  and  often  in  camps  in  this  region,  boarding 
facilities  must  be  provided  for  the  bachelor  members  of  the  crew. 

The  subsistence  department  is  in  charge  of  a  head  cook,  who  has 
helpers  called  flunkies  or  cookccs,  who  wait  on  table,  peel  potatoes, 
wash  dishes  and  perform  odd  jobs  around  the  kitchen.  One  or 
more  assistant  cooks  may  be  employed  in  large  camps,  for  the 
preparation  of  meats  and  pastry.  A  high-grade  cook  is  considered 
essential,  because  the  season's  success  usually  depends  on  a  con- 
stant supply  of  labor,  which  cannot  be  retained  unless  a  variety 
of  wholesome  food  is  provided.  A  weekly  charge  may  be  made 
for  board  or  the  cost  of  it  may  be  included  in  the  wage  paid  to 
a  workman. 

One  flunkie  to  every  twenty-five  men  is  sufficient.  All  camps 
also  have  one  or  more  chore  boys  who  clean  up  the  men's  quarters, 
cut  firewood  for  the  kitchen  and  bunk  houses,  carry  water  for 
bunk  house  use,  and  sometimes  clean  the  stables.  A  launderer 
or  laundress  also  is  employed  in  some  camps. 


72  LOGGING 

The  kitchen  equipment  consists  of  one  or  more  cook  stoves,  and 
the  necessary  utensils  required  in  the  preparation  of  food  for 
large  numbers  of  men.  Some  of  the  modern  camps  now  use 
electric  dish-washers  and  have  small  refrigerating  plants  or  special 
underground  cold  storage  facilities  for  keeping  meats  and  perish- 
able foods. 

The  kitchen  utensils  may  be  of  iron,  tin,  or  granite  ware.  Dining 
plates  and  serving  vessels  often  are  of  granite  or  agate  ware, 
although  heavy  china  is  considered  preferable  because  there  is 
danger  of  the  enamel  chipping  off  granite  ware.  Cutlery  is  of 
steel  with  plain  wooden  handles. 

Rations.  —  In  preparing  l^ills  of  fare  for  camp  purposes,  the 
cook  is  dependent  not  only  on  the  supplies  on  hand  but  also  on 
the  regularity  with  which  they  are  delivered  at  the  camp.  This 
varies  with  the  distance  from  the  source  of  supplies  and  the 
weather  conditions.  There  cannot  be  a  well-defined  system  of 
bills  of  fare  in  camps  where  the  cook  must  rely  upon  wagon  or 
sled  transport  for  bringing  in  the  foodstuffs.  When  the  camp  is 
located  on  a  logging  railroad,  the  problem  is  more  simple,  since 
regularity  in  delivery  is  practicable.  Cooks  are  expected  to  vary 
the  daily  bill  of  fare  as  much  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  workmen 
may  not  tire  of  their  food.  The  average  logger's  ration  is  about 
double  that  of  the  United  States  army  on  garrison  duty  and  may 
reach,  on  an  average,  between  6,000  and  7,000  calories  daily  for 
workers  in  the  colder  portions  of  the  country.  An  investigation  of 
logger's  rations^  made  in  the  Northwest  in  1918,  disclosed  the  fact 
that  the  unnecessary  and  avoidable  waste  in  feeding  men  in 
logging  camps  was  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  due  to  (a)  incompetent 
buyers  and  to  lack  of  system  in  making  purchases,  (b)  storage 
waste  through  deterioration  of  perishable  foods  and  to  damage  by 
rats  and  other  vermin,  (c)  table  waste,  the  greatest  single  factor, 
caused  by  serving  too  great  a  variety  and  the  preparation  of  too 
large  quantities  of  each  variety,  (d)  plate  waste,  caused  by  indi- 
viduals taking  more  food  than  they  desired.  These  various  wastes 
were  attributed  chiefly  to  serving  too  large  portions  of  meat  and 
similar  foods,  greed,  food  sabotage,  and  unpalatability.  The 
chief  remedy  suggested  was  a  reduction  in  size  of  portions  served, 
personal  appeals  to  the  men  to  avoid  waste,  and  more  careful 
preparation  of  food  in  order  that  all  of  it  might  be  palatable. 

1  Made  by  the  Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army,  Spruce  Production  Division. 


CAMPS  73 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  ehmination  of  these  wastes 
in  recent  years,  owing  to  the  high  price  of  foodstuffs.  Many 
logging  camps  now  serve  excellent  meals. 

Bills  of  fare  for  logging  camps  have  been  published  in  lumber 
trade  journals  at  various  times,  in  an  effort  to  encourage  a  varied 
diet  in  logging  camps  menus,  because  it  is  a  recognized  fact  that 
well-cooked,  appetizing,  and  nourishing  food  tends  to  increased 
efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  workmen. ^ 

Recipes  for  the  preparation  of  foodstuffs  in  logging  camps  have 
rarely  been  especially  prepared,  since  the  procedure  does  not  differ 
from  that  applicable  in  any  industrial  camp  in  which  large  numbers 
of  men  are  fed.^ 

The  ration  lists  given  in  Table  VI  arc  suggestive  merely,  in- 
dicating the  general  class  of  foods  furnished  in  logging  camps  in 
the  Pacific  Northwest^  and  in  the  Northeast. 

The  amount  of  animal  feed  required  is  approximately  30  pounds 
of  hay  and  20  pounds  of  grain  daily  per  animal. 

The  total  weight  of  animal  feed  and  foodstuffs  required  to  log 
one  million  feet,  log  scale,  of  timber  in  the  Northeast  is  approxi- 
mately 200  tons.     Data  for  other  regions  are  not  available. 

Commissary  supplies  and  animal  feed  are  usually  hauled  into 
northern  camps  during  the  late  fall  and  early  winter  on  tote  sleds. 
Where  there  are  good  roads,  supplies  are  occasionally  wagoned 
in  during  the  sunnner.  A  two-horse  team  will  haul  about  1500 
pounds  of  supplies  daily  for  a  distance  of  20  miles  on  a  sled, 
while  a  team  of  four  horses  will  seldom  haul  more  than  1000 
pounds  on  a  wagon.  Supplies  for  railroad  camps  are  brought 
in,  as  needed,  by  rail. 

CAMP    HYGIENE 

Early  logging  camps  had  no  system  of  medical  supervision, 
and  occasionally  there  were  serious  epidemics  in  camps,  especially 
in  those  parts  of  the  country  where  logging  was  carried  on  during 
the  warmer  months  of  the  year.     They  were  of  rarer  occurrence 

^  See  West  Coa,st  Lumberman,  Seattle,  Washington,  Nov.  15,  1915,  p.  20. 

2  Recipes  for  the  preparation  of  foodstuffs  for  a  50-man  camp  in  the 
Northeast  were  pubhshed  in  the  proceedings  of  the  First  Annual  Conference 
of  the  Woods  Department,  BerUn  Mills  Co.,  et  al,  held  Nov.  25  and  26,  1913. 
Berlin,  New  Hampshire. 

^  See  Investigation  of  Feeding  Operations,  Timberman,  October,  1918, 
pp.  65  to  68. 


74 


LOGGING 


Table  VI 
LOGGING  CAMP  RATIONS^ 

(Pounds  per  man  for  one  day.) 


Commodity 


Meat,  fresh 

Bacon  or  salt  pork 

Eggs 

Lard  substitutes 

Butter  and  substitutes. 

Cheese 

Milk,  canned('») 

Milk,  freshO) 

Beans 

Potatoes 

Canned  vegetables 

Fresh  vegetables 

Sugar 

Syrup  and  molasses  .  .  . 

Jams  and  jellies 

Flour  (all  kinds) 

Cereals 

Corn  meal 

Corn  starch 

Rice  and  barley 

Dried  and  canned  fruits 

Fresh  fruit,  etc 

Tea 

Coflfee 

Salt 

Pepper 


1.25 

0'i56 
0.080 
0.150 
0.050 
0.250 
1.000 
0.125 
1.000 
0.362 
0.125 
0.200 
0.250 
0.031 
0.900 
0.100 
0.020 
0.020 
0.020 
0.250 
0.250 
0.010 
0.071 


{') 


0.89 
0.36 


0.18 
.029 


0.35(5) 
1.62(«) 


C) 
0.34 
0.067 

i'36' 

0'082 

•  (5)-  • 

0'i37 
0.028C) 

.020 

.065 


(')  Weights  of  food  as  purchased. 

(^)  Pacific  Coast  conditions.     Prepared  by  the  Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army.     Spruce  Produc- 
tion Division. 

(^)  Maine  logging  camp. 

(*)  When  fresh  milk  is  available,  canned  milk  is  not  used  and  vice  versa. 

(^)  Includes  rice. 

(^)  Includes  potatoes  and  other  fresh  vegetables. 

C)  Includes  cocoa. 

in  northern  camps  because  logging  was  confined  chiefly  to  the 
colder  months  of  the  year  when  there  was  less  danger  of  conta- 
gious diseases  due  to  unsanitary  surroundings. 

Most  loggers  now  take  every  possible  precaution  to  prevent 
disease.  This  is  due  to  a  realization  that  the  highest  labor  effi- 
ciency can  be  secured  only  in  camps  where  a  high  sanitary  standard 
is  maintained,  and  to  the  passage  of  State  laws  which  are  designed 
to  protect  public  health  in  industrial  camps. 

State  regulations  chiefly  govern  the  subjects  of  water  pollution, 
disposal  of  camp  refuse  of  all  kinds,  and  ventilation.     Bowel 


CAMPS  75 

troubles  are  one  of  the  more  common  ailments  in  camps  during 
the  warm  months,  and  are  often  due  to  poorly  cooked  or  tainted 
food,  and  polluted  water.  Such  diseases  may  be  guarded  against 
by  supplying  pure  drinking  water,  by  burning  or  burying  all 
kitchen  and  stable  refuse,^  by  providing  tight  latrines,  so  that 
flies  cannot  infect  the  food  supply,  and  by  making  provision  for 
adequate  ventilation  and  suitable  bathing  facilities. 
The  essentials  of  camp  sanitation  are: 

(1)  A  pure  water  supply.  This  can  be  provided  only  when 
the  camp  buildings  are  so  located  with  reference  to  the  water 
supply  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  contamination  from  camp 
sewage.  When  drinking  water  is  taken  from  streams,  care  must 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  supply  is  not  contaminated  at  any  point 
on  the  stream  above  the  camp.^ 

(2)  Adequate  disposal  of  garbage,  manure,  and  all  forms  of 
human  excrement.  Garbage  and  manure  should  be  burned, 
buried  or  treated  with  some  preparation  which  will  keep  flies 
away  from  it,  since  they  are  a  common  means  of  spreading  disease. 
Incinerators  for  garbage  and  manure  can  be  built  cheaply  and 
are  an  admirable  method  of  disposal.^ 

Tin  cans  should  be  collected  daily  during  warm  weather  and 
placed  in  deep  earthen  pits  and  covered  with  earth,  or  else  they 
should  be  placed  in  a  pile,  covered  with  oil  and  burned  over. 
During  the  winter  months,  garbage  and  tin  cans  may  be  stored 
safely  at  a  distance  of  200  feet  from  camp,  provided  they  are 
hauled  away  or  otherwise  disposed  of  before  the  fly  season. 

In  warm  weather,  waste  water  from  the  kitchen,  wash  and 
bunk  houses,  and  baths  should  be  carried  in  closed  trenches  to 

1  Kerosene  sprinkled  on  bam  manure  and  garbage  will  keep  away  flies, 
l)ut  lessens  the  value  of  the  manure  for  fertilizing  purposes.  Borax  0.62 
pounds,  or  crude  calcium  borax  0.7.5  pounds  per  eight  bushels  of  garbage  or 
manure  will  keep  away  flies  and  wnll  not  injure  the  fertilizer  value.  Two 
ounces  of  either  of  the  above  chemicals  are  sufficient  to  keep  flies  out  of  gar- 
bage cans. 

2  A  simple  test  for  water  purity  is  a.s  follows:  To  one  glass  of  water  add 
one-fifth  grain  of  permanganate  of  potash.  This  will  turn  the  water  a  wine 
color.  If  organic  matter  is  present  the  water  will  turn  a  muddy  brown  color, 
It  should  not  be  used  for  drinking  purposes  unless,  on  chemical  analysis, 
the  water  is  pronounced  potable. 

^  Specifications  for  industrial  camp  garbage  incinerators  may  be  found  in 
Advisory  Pamphlet  on  Camp  Sanitation  and  Housing,  Commission  of  Im- 
migration and  Housing  of  CaUfomia,  San  Francisco,  1914. 


76  LOGGING 

a  covered  cesspool  located  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  water  sup- 
ply. In  case  open  ditches  are  used,  quicklime  should  be  liberally 
applied  at  frequent  intervals;  otherwise  the  organic  matter  will 
decompose  and  furnish  a  breeding  place  for  flies. 

The  use  of  fly-proof  latrines  by  men  in  camp  should  be  obliga- 
tory, since,  typhoid  in  camp  is  due  chiefly  to  the  infection  of  food 
by  flies  and  rarely  to  polluted  water.  About  3  per  cent  of  those 
who  have  had  typhoid  fever  are  "carriers,"  and  to  the  unsuspected 
presence  of  such  men  in  camps,  most  of  the  typhoid  epidemics 
may  be  traced.  A  daily  application  of  5  pounds  of  quicklime 
to  the  latrine  pit  will  keep  it  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

(3)  Fly-proof  sleeping,  kitchen,  and  eating  quarters  and  la- 
trines. Food  infection  cannot  be  prevented  unless  care  is  taken 
to  carefully  screen  not  only  the  living  and  eating  quarters  but 
also  the  chief  sources  of  infection.  Such  protection  is  easy  to 
secure  and  should  be  obligator}^  in  every  industrial  camp. 

(4)  Adequate  air  space  and  ventilation.  The  air-space  re- 
quirements of  various  states  for  industrial  camps  is  not  uniform, 
but  the  best  standards  require  not  less  than  500  cubic  feet  of  air 
space  per  man,  combined  with  adequate  ventilation.^ 

(5)  Adequate  bathing  facilities.  Many  camps  are  not  provided 
with  shower  baths  or  other  bathing  facilities  for  the  workmen, 
although  they  are  quite  common  in  the  camps  of  the  Pacific 
Northwest.  Bathing  facilities  have  proved  an  important  factor 
in  reducing  wound  infection  and,  therefore,  are  very  desirable. 
Compulsory  camp  laundry  service  is  also  an  aid  to  the  prevention 
of  wound  infection.  Experience  has  shown  that  woods  workers 
in  most  sections  of  the  country  appreciate  such  facilities  and  use 
them  freely.  The  problem  of  providing  bathing  facilities  in 
northern  camps  is  more  difficult  than  in  the  South  and  West, 
because  of  temperature  conditions,  and  they  are  seldom  furnished. 

(6)  Cleanliness  in  the  kitchen  and  dining  room.  The  degree 
of  cleanliness  found  in  camp  kitchens  and  dining  rooms  is  ex- 
tremely variable  unless  properly  supervised  by  the  management 

1  The  Camp  Sanitation  Rules  formulated  in  1914  by  the  Wisconsin  State 
Board  of  Health  call  for  225  cubic  feet  of  air  space  per  man;  the  standard  for 
the  Loyal  Legion  of  Loggers  and  Lumbermen  is  500  cubic  feet  per  man;  the 
Province  of  Ontario,  Canada  400  cubic  feet  per  man.  Wisconsin  requires  a 
ventilation  duct  in  the  roof  equivalent  to  4  square  feet  per  500  square  feet 
of  floor  space  or  fraction  thereof.  The  4  L's  specify  14  square  feet  of  window- 
space  per  man,  a  small  window  for  each  bunk  being  preferable  to  larger  ones. 


CAMPS  77 

or  by  some  representative  of  the  State  Board  of  Health.  State 
regulations  usually  provide  that  the  kitchen  and  dining  room 
shall  be  scrubbed  at  least  bi-weekly  and  swept  daily. ^ 

(7)  Adequate  drainage  of  the  camp  site.  This  is  essential 
in  order  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  water  supply  and  to  elim- 
inate mosquito  breeding  holes. 

Ideal  sanitary  regulations  of  the  Loyal  Legion  of  Loggers  and 
Lumbermen,  formulated  in  1919  by  the  sanitary  inspector  and 
adopted  by  the  Board  of  Directors  of  that  organization,  are  as 
follows : 


"Adequate  supply  of  pure  drinking  water  with  some  satisfactory 
type  of  drinking  fountain.  (The  use  of  a  common  drinking  cup 
is  not  allowed.)  Water  supply  must  be  protected  from  con- 
tamination from  source  to  points  of  distribution. 

CAMP    SITE    AND    GROUNDS 

"Whenever  possible  a  well  drained  camp  site  shall  be  selected. 
The  grounds  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  buildings  shall  be  kept 
free  from  rubbish,  garbage  and  all  other  unsightly  or  unsanitary 
matter.  All  l)uildings  should  be  connected  by  serviceable  walks 
of  boards  or  other  suitable  material. 

BUNK    HOUSES 

"Bunk  house  should  be  raised  from  ground  at  least  2  feet,  and 
in  damp  situations  more.  Any  design  best  fitted  for  the  locality 
in  which  camp  is  situated  may  be  used.  Preferences  should  be 
given  to  the  smaller  type  —  none  should  house  more  than  25  men. 
Good  substantial  walks  of  plank  or  other  suitable  material  should 
connect  all  bunk  houses  with  all  other  buildings  in  the  camp. 

"Bunk  house  should  have  suitable  roof  ventilation  and  should 
be  large  enough  to  provide  a  mininmra  of  500  cubic  feet  of  air 
space  per  man.  Four  square  feet  per  man  window  space  should  be 
provided,  numerous  small  windciws  (one  for  each  bunk)  are 
preferable  to  a  lesser  number  of  large  windows. 

"Bunk  houses  should  be  adequately  heated  by  steam,  hot  water 
or  stoves.     Roof,  walls  and  floors  should  be  weather  tight.     Iron 

1  "Dry  Sweeping"  is  prohibited  in  public  camps  in  most  states. 


78  LOGGING 

post  bunks  with  wire  springs  should  be  used  exclusively.  Bunk 
house  floors  should  be  swept  daily,  and  scrubbed  once  each  week, 
or  oiled  every  two  weeks.  Bunk  houses  should  be  thoroughly 
aired  daily. 

"Bedding  should  be  cleaned  and  aired  frequently. 

"Every  camp  (except  the  very  small  ones)  should  have  one 
able-bodied  man  whose  sole  duty  should  be  to  clean  up  the  camp. 
All  cuspidors,  spit  boxes  or  other  receptacles  used  for  a  like  pur- 
pose should  be  throughly  cleaned  daily. 

BATH    HOUSES 

"  There  should  be  a  minimum  of  one  shower  head  for  each  twenty 
men.  Bath  house  should  be  centrally  located  so  as  to  be  easily 
accessible  from  bunk  houses,  and  should  be  well  ventilated,  lighted 
and  water  tight. 

"Drainage  from  shower  compartments  should  be  carefully 
constructed  and  lead,  through  covered  drain,  to  cesspool  or  other 
proper  place  of  disposal.  The  hot  water  heater  should  be  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  insure  an  adequate  supply  of  hot  water 
for  bathing,  washing  and  laundry  purposes.  Separate  control 
for  hot  water  and  cold  water  should  be  installed. 

"Bath  rooms  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  The  use  of 
individual  towel  and  soap  should  be  insisted  upon  in  bath  and 
wash  room. 

DRY    ROOMS 

"Dry  rooms  are  not  required  east  of  the  Cascades.  In  other 
districts  they  should  be  well  heated,  well  ventilated,  separate 
from  living  and  sleeping  quarters  and  should  contain  ample 
space  so  that  each  individual's  clothes  can  be  placed  without 
coming  in  contact  with  others. 


"Latrines  should  be  located  at  a  point  where  they  will  not 
contaminate  water  supply,  or  be  a  nuisance  to  camp  on  account 
of  odors.  They  should  always  be  placed  on  opposite  side  of  camp 
from  kitchen  and  not  less  than  150  feet  from  bunk  houses.  They 
should  be  easily  accessible  from  camp,  connected  to  it  by  a  sub- 
stantial board  walk,  and  should  have  a  light  over  the  doorway 
at  night. 


CAMPS  79 

"  Latrines  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  afford  one  seat  for  each 
eight  persons,  should  not  contain  open  cracks  or  knotholes,  and 
should  be  fly-tight  around  the  bottom  of  the  shelter.  All  openings 
should  be  screened  with  No.  16  or  18  wire  mesh. 

"Holes  should  be  large  and  fitted  with  seK-closing  covers.  The 
interior  aspect  of  the  box  should  be  protected  on  the  inside  by  a 
tin  or  iron  urine  shield.  Toilets  should  contain  a  non-leakable 
urine  trough  connected  by  tight  drain  to  earth  vault. 

"The  earth  vault  should  not  be  less  than  8  feet  in  depth. 
Excreta  should  be  covered  weekly  with  oil  or  live  lime.  Some 
type  of  vent  should  connect  the  vault  with  the  open  air.  This 
vent  must  be  screened.  Floors  must  be  swept  daily,  seats  weekly, 
and  urinal  trough  mopped  daily  with  crude  oil.  Floors  should 
be  oiled  once  each  week.  An  ample  supply  of  paper  must  be 
constantly  kept  on  hand. 

MESS    HALLS 

"The  mess  hall  should  be  located  not  less  than  250  feet  from 
the  latrines.  Mess  halls  should  be  adequately  lighted,  heated 
and  ventilated,  and  should  be  sufficiently  well  constructed  so  as 
to  leave  no  open  cracks  in  floors,  walls  or  ceiling. 

"Mess  halls  should  be  made  fly-proof,  should  provide  sufficient 
table  space  to  allow  a  minimum  of  22  inches  per  man  at  table. 

"The  tables  should  be  washed  after  each  meal.  Floors  should 
be  scrubbed  twice  each  week,  or  oiled  once  a  week,  and  swept 
with  care  daily.  Avoid  dry  sweeping.  Condiment  bottles  and 
containers  should  be  scakk^d  with  hot  water  and  wiped  carefully 
each  day.  All  dishes  and  cutlery  should  be  thoroughly  washed 
in  hot  water  and  soap  and  rinsed  in  boiling  water  before  drying. 


MEAT    HOUSE 

"The  meat  house  should  be  very  carefully  constructed,  and 
should  be  absolutely  free  from  cracks  and  knot  holes.  It  should 
be  set  high  off  the  ground  and  present  at  least  three  sides  to  the 
air.  It  should  be  perfectly  screened  with  a  fine  mesh  wire  netting. 
Walls  and  ceiling  should  be  ceiled  with  seasoned  matched  ceiling^ 
and  painted  white  or  light  slate.  Floor  should  be  well-made  of 
matched  lumber,  and  either  oiled  or  painted.  Meat  hangers 
should  be  so  placed  that  meat  will  not  come  in  contact  with  the 


80  LOGGING 

walls.  The  meat  block  should  be  round  and  smooth,  and  either 
painted  or  varnished  on  all  surfaces  except  top.  Doors  should 
fit  tight,  and  be  self-closing. 

"The  meat  house  interior  and  all  tools,  furniture  and  utensils 
should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean. 

KITCHENS 

"The  kitchen  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  It  should 
be  either  in  the  same  building  as  the  mess  hall,  or  connected  to 
it  by  a  fly-proof  enclosed  passageway.  All  openings  should  be 
screened  and  all  doors  should  have  some  automatic  closing  device 
attached. 

"All  drainage  should  be  of  the  covered  drain  type.  Dish 
water  and  other  liquid  waste  should  be  conveyed  to  a  cesspool 
or  sullage  pit  through  covered  drains.  All  kitchen  garbage  should 
be  kept  in  metal  fly-proof,  covered  containers,  until  permanently 
disposed  of. 

"Kitchens  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  at  least  once  each 
week,  and  swept  daily.  Dry  sweeping  should  not  be  permitted. 
No  persons  afflicted  with  a  communicable  disease  should  be  allowed 
in  the  kitchen  or  mess  hall.  Absolute  cleanliness  of  persons  and 
clothes  of  cooks,  helpers,  and  waiters  should  be  demanded,  and 
particular  attention  should  be  given  to  hands  and  nails.  Failure 
to  observe  this  rule  should  cause  dismissal. 

"All  perishable  food  should  be  protected  from  putrefaction 
and  contamination  by  dust  or  insects.  An  ample  supply  of  hot 
and  cold  running  water  should  be  supplied  at  all  times.  The 
kitchen  should  be  kept  free  from  flies,  roaches,  mice  and  other 
vermin.  Cats,  dogs  and  other  pets  should  be  excluded.  All 
persons  not  actively  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  the  food  should 
be  kept  out  of  the  kitchen. 

SANITARY    SERVICE 

"The  camp  superintendent  should  be  held  strictly  responsible 
for  the  sanitation  of  the  camp.  He  should  oversee  and  direct 
the  camp  janitor  in  the  performance  of  his  duties.  It  should 
be  the  duty  of  the  camp  janitor  to  clean  up  and  keep  clean  the 
entire  camp,  including  all  bunk  houses,  reading  rooms,  toilets 
and  the  camp  grounds.     (The  kitchen  and  mess  halls  are  entirely 


CAMPS  81 

within  the  province  of  the  cook  and  his  helpers.)  The  camp 
janitor  should  see  to  the  proper  disposal  of  all  garbage  and  refuse 
and  should  daily  inspect  all  buildings  under  his  care.  He  should 
note  all  damage  and  defects  in  any  doors,  windows,  ventilators, 
screening,  and  all  apparatus  or  fixtures  connected  with  the  heat- 
ing, lighting  or  bathing  and  washing  facilities  of  the  camp,  and 
repair  or  cause  them  to  be  repaired  at  once. 

"Garbage  and  refuse  from  cook  houses  should  be  placed  in 
covered,  water-tight  garbage  cans.  Cans  should  never  be  left  un- 
covered and  should  be  emptied  and  cleaned  inside  and  out  daily. 

"A  stand  to  hold  garbage  cans  should  be  constructed  just  out- 
side the  kitchen  door.  The  stand  and  surrounding  ground  and 
wall  should  be  treated  with  crude  oil  frequently,  to  repel  flies. 

"Kitchen  waste  or  garbage  should  be  disposed  of  by  burning, 
burying  or  feeding  to  hogs.  (Hogs  should  never  be  allowed 
to  roam  at  large,  but  should  be  kept  in  a  hog-tight  enclosure. 
This  should  never  be  less  than  500  feet  from  the  camp;  same  rule 
applies  to  stables.  ^Manure  pile  should  not  be  allowed  to  accu- 
mulate in  vicinity  of  camp.) 

"Fly-tight  boxes  or  other  receptacles  should  be  placed  at  con- 
venient points  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  living  and  sleep- 
ing quarters.  In  these  should  be  placed  all  sweepings,  waste  paper, 
discarded  clothing,  and  other  refuse  of  the  camp.  These  should 
be  emptied  and  contents  disposed  of  by  incineration  as  the  occasion 
may  demand." 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO    CHAPTER  IV 

Bein,  F.  L.:  Refrigerating  System  for  the  Cook-house.  The  Timberman, 
AprU,  1920,  p.  32P  and  October,  1920,  pp.  59,  and  60. 

Jaffa,  M.  E.:  The  Uses  and  Values  of  Foods.  The  Timberman,  Nov. 
1915,  pp.  60  to  62. 

Lipscomb,  Dr.  W.  N. :  Logging  Camp  Sanitation.  The  Timberman,  Nov. 
1917,  pp.  64G  to  641. 

RuEGNiTZ,  W.  C:  Ehminating  Waste  in  the  Boarding  House.  The  Tim- 
berman, Sept.  1917,  p.  36  and  Nov.  1917,  pp.  63  and  64. 

RuEGNiTZ,  W.  C:  Standard  System  of  Management  of  Mess  Houses. 
The  Timberman,  Nov.  1921,  pp.  34  to  38  incl. 

Spruce  Production  DI\^sION,  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production:  Construc- 
tion of  Camp  Kitchens  and  Mess  HalLs.  The  Timberman,  Sept.  1918, 
p.  33. 

Tharaldsen,  Thorfixx:  Investigation  of  Feeding  Operations.  The 
Timberman,  Oct.,  1918,  pp.  65  to  68. 


CHAPTER  V 
WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS  AND  EQUIPMENT 


An  ax  head  consists  of  two  parts:  namely,  the  l^it  or  euttinp; 
edge  and  the  head  or  poll.  The  latter  has  an  eye  mto  which  is 
fitted  the  helve  or  handle.  There  are  several  types  of  axes,  chief 
among  which  are  the  falling  ax,  the  broadax  and  the  turpentine  ax. 

Falling  Ax.  —  This  is  used  for  felling,  log-making,  swamping 
and  other  chopping  work.  The  head  is  made  in  a  variety  of 
patterns  and  of  several  weights.  It  tapers  from  the  poll  to 
the  bit  and  has  either  smooth,  slightly  concave  or  beveled  sides. 
The  eye  is  oval-shaped  and  has  a  larger  diameter  on  the  side  op- 
posite the  handle  in  order  that  a  wedge  may  be  inserted  in  the 
handle  head.  The  head  may  have  one  or  two  cutting  edges. 
The  former  is  known  as  a  single-bitted  and  the  latter  as  a  double- 
bitted  ax.  A  single-bit  is  in  common  use  where  a  light  ax  is 
required,  where  a  single  cutting  blade  is  needed,  or  where  the 
ax  is  to  be  used  for  striking.  A  double-bitted  ax  is  service- 
able where  a  woodsman  has  need  of  a  sharp  cutting  edge,  and  at 
times  must  cut  dry  knots  and  other  material  that  quickly  dull 
the  tool.  It  is  a  favorite  with  swampers  and  some  sawyers  prefer 
it  for  driving  wedges. 

Bits  are  made  of  steel  and  are  either  straight  or  curved.  They 
must  be  properly  tempered,  for  if  too  soft  the  edge  will  turn 
and  if  too  hard  it  will  break. 

The  weight  of  the  head  depends  on  the  character  of  work  that 
is  to  be  performed  and  the  personal  ideas  of  the  laborer. 

In  the  Northeast  fallers  prefer  an  ax  head  weighing  from  3j  to 
4  pounds,  while  the  western  loggers  prefer  one  weighing  from  3| 
to  4^  pounds. 

Swampers  and  others  who  cut  limbs  and  brush,  snipe  logs  and 
perform  similar  work  use  an  ax  head  weighing  from  4  to  5  pounds. 

The  handles  for  single-bitted  axes  are  either  curved  or  straight, 
the  choice  being  chiefly  one  of  individual  preference.     Handles 

82 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS  AND   EQUIPMENT 


83 


are  preferablj^  made  of  second-growth  hickory,  but  camp  black- 
smiths often  use  hard  maple  for  them.  In  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States  loggers  generally  prefer  a  36-inch  handle, 
while  on  the  Pacific  Coast  handle  lengths  range  between  38  and 
40  inches  for  average-sized  timber  and  up  to  44  inches  for  redwoods. 
Handles  for  double-bitted  axes  are  straight  in  order  that  either 
bit  may  be  used.  They  are  made  in  the  same  lengths  as  those 
for  single-bitted  axes. 

Broadax.  —  The  broad  ax  is  used  for  hewing  timbers,  cross- 
ties,  and  work  of  a  similar  character.  The  more  common  form  has 
a  reversible  bit,  11^  or  12  inches 
long,  a  heavy  square  poll  and  a 
flat  inner  face.  It  may  be  used 
either  right-handed  or  left- 
handed.  The  outer  side  has  a 
slightly  concave  face  and  a  cut- 
ting bevel  |-inch  wide  on  the  bit. 
The  usual  weight  of  the  head  is  6 
or  7  pounds.  Handles  are  from 
26  to  36  inches  long  with  a  slight 
upward  curve  immediately  behind 
the  eye  which  enables  the  work- 
man to  assume  a  more  upright 
position  and  still  maintain  a  cor- 
rect cutting  angle  for  the  blade. 

Turpentine  Ax.  —  A  special  form  of  ax  is  used  in  southern  pine 
forests  for  cutting  the  "boxes"  or  receptacles  in  the  bases  of  the 
trees  in  which  the  crude  turpentine  is  collected. 

It  is  made  in  two  patterns,  namely,  the  square  poll  and  the 
round  poll,  the  type  used  being  a  matter  of  personal  choice.  A 
turpentine  ax  has  a  long,  narrow  bit  so  that  a  deep,  narrow 
incision  maj'  be  made.  The  usual  dimensions  are:  length, 
11^  or  12  inches;  width  of  blade,  3^  inches.  The  average  weight 
is  5^  or  6  pounds.  Straight  hickory  handles  36  inches  in  length 
are  considered  best. 


a-Double-bitkd  Axe. 
b  -Single-bitted  Axe. 
C  —Turpentine  Axe. 
d-  Broad  Axe. 


7.  —  Characteristic  Types  of 
Ax  Heads. 


Saws  are  made  in  a  variety  of  lengths  and  widths  of  blade, 
and  in  numerous  shapes  and  patterns  of  teeth  to  meet  special 
requirements  and  to  conform  to  the  preferences  of  certain  lo- 
calities. 


84 


LOGGING 


The  Blade.  —  In  small-  and  medium-sized  timber  a  5|-  to  6^- 
foot  blade  is  used,  while  for  the  fir  timber  of  the  Pacific  Coast 
the  saws  range  in  length  from  7|  to  10  feet,  with  a  maximmn  length 
of  18  feet  in  the  redwood  region.  The  width  varies  with  the  pat- 
tern of  the  saw,  and  ranges  from  4  to  8^  inches. 

A  slightly  curved  saw  blade  is  most  frequently  used  because  it 
affords  a  larger  space  for  sawdust.  This  makes  it  run  with  less 
friction  and  the  work  is  less  fatiguing.  Saws  are  made  thinner 
at  the  back  than  at  the  cutting  edge,  in  order  further  to  re- 
duce friction.  Saws  for  felling  large  Pacific  Coast  timber  are  more 
limber  than  those  used  for  log-making,  because  the  latter  are 


Fig.  8.  —  Common  Types  of  Cross-cut  Saw  Handles,  a.  Reversible  saw 
handle  used  in  the  Pacific  Coast  Forests,  h.  CUmax  pattern  saw  handle, 
c.  Loop  handle. 

operated  by  one  man  and  a  stiff  saw  is  needed  to  prevent  the  blade 
from  buckling  on  the  forward  stroke.     Felling  saws  usually  are 

17  gauge  on  the  back  and  13  gauge  on  the  cutting  edge,  sometimes 

18  and  14  gauge  respectively,  while  bucking  saws  for  western  use 
often  are  18  gauge  on  the  back  and  13  gauge  on  the  toothed  edge.^ 

Handles.  —  The  handles  used  on  cross-cut  saws  are  round, 
about  1|  inches  in  diameter,  and  range  in  length  from  12  to  18 
inches.  They  are  fastened  either  by  clasps  which  fit  into  holes 
in  the  ends  of  the  saw,  or  by  loops  which  fit  over  the  ends  of  the 
saw.     The  upper  part  of  the  loop  is  threaded  and  the  handle 

^  The  standard  gauge  used  for  the  measurement  of  thickness  in  the  United 
States  is  the  Stubbs  or  Birmingham  wire  gauge.  The  value,  expressed  in 
fractional  parts  of  an  inch,  for  18  gauge  is  3/64  full;  for  17  gauge  1/16  scant; 
for  14  gauge  5/64  full;  and  for  13  gauge  3/32  full. 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS  AND   EQUIPMENT 


85 


is  tightened  by  screwing  it  down  firmly  against  the  back  of  the 
sawblade.  Either  type  permits  the  ready  removal  of  the  handle 
from  the  blade. 

Teeth.  —  The  teeth  on  a  cross-cut  saw  are  arranged  in  pairs, 
trios  or  quadruplets,  each  set  of  which  is  separated  by  a  cleaner 
or  raker  for  removing  the  sawdust.  Where  skilful  filers  are  not 
available  a  saw  without  rakers  may  be  used,  the  sawdust  being 
carried  out  of  the  cut  by  the  teeth.     The  forms  of  teeth  preferred 


PERFECTION 


PERFECTION  N0.4 

a 


REX  FALLING 


REDWOOB  KI.NG 

d 


REDWOOD  FALLING    < 


)muwMmm 


EUREKA  FALLING 


WVAAji/UWW 

e  «  / 

Fig.  9.  —  Saw  Teeth  Patterns,  a.  Often  used  for  sawing  southern  yellow 
pine,  cypress  and  spruce,  b.  For  sawing  white  pine,  hemlock  and  cedar. 
c.  For  sawing  yellow  poplar  and  Cottonwood,  d.  For  sawing  redwood. 
e.  For  sawing  Douglas  fir.    /.  For  sawing  white  oak. 

are  as  follows:  yellow  pine,  cypress  and  spruce  —  perforated 
lance  teeth,  arranged  in  sets  of  four  (Fig.  9a);  white  pine,  hem- 
lock and  cedar  —  broad  teeth  in  sets  of  two  (Fig.  9b) ;  poplar 
and  Cottonwood  —  heavy  solid  teeth  in  twos  (Fig.  9c) ;  redwood 
—  solid  lance  teeth  in  twos  (Fig.  9d) ;  Douglas  fir  —  solid  lance 
teeth  of  fours  (Fig.  9e) ;  white  oak  —  solid  teeth  in  sets  of  three 
(Fig.  9f). 

The  cutting  teeth  constitute  a  series  of  knives  which  strike  the 
fibres  at  right  angles  and  sever  them  on  either  side  of  the  cut. 
The  cleaners  or  rakers  free  the  severed  fibres  which  are  then 


86 


LOGGING 


carried  out  in  the  cavities  of  the  teeth  in  the  form  of  sawdust, 
occupying  about  six  times  as  much  space  as  the  fibres  did  pre- 
vious to  cutting.     Long,  stringy  sawdust  denotes  a  well-fitted  saw. 

Loose-textured  and  long-fibered  woods  are  the  most  difficult  to 
saw  because  the  teeth  tear  rather  than  cut  the  fibres,  a  larger 
quantity  of  sawdust  is  produced,  and  the  rough  character  of  the 
walls  of  the  cut  offers  resistance  to  the  saw.  Coniferous  wood 
is  more  readily  sawed  than  hardwood,  because  of  its  simple  ana- 
tomical structure  and  fine  medullary  rays. 

Experiments  made  by  Gayer^  show  the  resistance  to  the  saw 
across  the  fibres  of  green  timber  to  be  as  follows,  the  resistance 
to  beech  being  assumed  as  L 


Resistance  to  saw. 

Scotch  pine,  silver  fir  and  spruce.. 

Maple,  larch,  alder 

Beech                   

0.50-0.60 

0.7,5-0.90 

1.00 

1.03 

1.30-1.40 

1.80 

Oak                              

Saw-fitting.  —  The  cutting  edges  of  the  teeth  are  beveled  to  a 
fine  point,  the  degree  of  bevel  depending  on  the  character  and 
condition  of  the  wood. 

The  filing  and  care  of  saw  teeth  is  called  "saw-fitting,"  and 
requires  skill  and  experience. 

The  tools  that  comprise  a  complete  saw-fitting  set  for  cross- 
cut saws  are  as  follows : 

1  combined  tooth  gauge,  jointer  and  side  file. 

1  saw  set. 

1  tooth  set  gauge. 

1  swage,  or  1  set-hammer. 

Several  fiat  files." 

The  characteristics  of  a  well-fitted  saw  are: 

(1)  All  cutting  teeth  must  be  the  same  length  so  that  each 
will  do  its  share  of  the  work. 

1  Gayer,  Karl:  Forest  Utilization  (Vol.  V,  Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry; 
trans,  from  the  German  by  W.  R.  Fisher;  2nd  ed.).  London;  Bradbury, 
Agnew  and  Company,  1908. 

2  Flat  files  from  6  to  8  inches  long;  are  preferred  by  saw  fitters.  The  life  of 
a  file  depends  on  its  quality;  as  a  rule  one  good  file  wiU  fit  from  3  to  6  saws. 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS  AND  EQUIPMENT  87 

(2)  The  rakers  or  cleaners  should  be  not  less  than  ^^  of  an 
inch  nor  more  than  :jV  o^  ^^  inch  shorter  than  the  teeth. 

(3)  The  form  of  tooth  bevel  depends  on  the  character  of 
timber  that  is  being  sawed.  It  should  not  be  too  flat  for  sawing 
frozen  timber,  very  hard  timber  or  wood  that  has  many  tough 
knots. 

(4)  All  teeth  should  be  filed  to  a  sharp  point. 

(5)  Saws  require  a  certain  amount  of  "set, "  which  is  given  by 
springing  out  alternate  teeth  in  one  direction  and  the  remainder 
in  the  opposite  direction  so  that  the  saw  will  cut  a  kerf  some- 
what greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  blade.  Dense-fibered 
and  frozen  hardwoods  require  the  least  set,  while  pitchy  pine  and 
soft  broadleaf  trees  require  the  maximum.  Only  the  minimum 
set  required  should  be  given  because  the  greater  the  set  the 
more  power  required  to  pull  the  saw.  Some  operators  recom- 
mend a  set  equal  to  one-fourth  the  thickness  of  the  blade  for  hard- 
woods such  as  maple,  birch,  beech,  and  oak,  and  one-third  the 
blade  thickness  for  softwoods  such  as  hemlock,  pine  and  spruce. 

The  art  of  successful  saw  fitting  consists  in  securing  the  proper 
balance  between  the  length  of  the  tooth  points  and  that  of  the 
rakers.  In  hardwood  sawing,  the  scoring  teeth  do  not  sink  as 
deep  at  each  stroke  as  in  softwood,  and  the  bevel  of  the  cutting 
points  is  less  acute.  Longer  rakers  can  be  used  with  hardwoods 
than  with  softwoods  due  to  the  more  shallow  scoring  bj^  the 
teeth.  The  raker  length  should  be  such  that  clean-cut  shavings 
and  not  fine  dust  are  produced.  When  fibers,  known  as 
"whiskers"  adhere  to  the  edge  of  shavings  it  is  an  indication 
that  the  rakers  are  cutting  below  the  depth  at  which  the  teeth 
have  scored  the  wood,  and  the  rakers,  therefore,  should  be  short- 
ened. As  a  general  rule,  rakers  for  hardwoods  should  be  about 
1/64  inch  shorter  than  the  teeth  points.  For  softwoods,  they 
should  be  from  1/40  to  1/32  inch  shorter. 

Rakers  usually  are  swaged  or  given  a  slight  bevel  on  the  point, 
since  this  tends  to  plane  the  wood  out  of  the  cut  rather  than  to 
drag  it  out.  When  sawing  hard  maple,  however,  the  rakers  are 
not  swaged  because  the  long  strings  of  sawdust  tend  to  curl  up 
in  the  gullets  of  the  saw  and  do  not  readily  fall  out  when  the  saw 
leaves  the  cut. 

Successful  saw  filers  often  find  it  necessary  to  adjust  their 
filing  practice  to  the  class  of  labor  which  is  to  use  the  saws.     For 


88  LOGGING 

example,  Yankee  sawyers  take  a  quick,  light  stroke,  while  Scan- 
dinavians take  a  slower  stroke,  and  "ride"  the  saw  harder. 
Saws  for  the  latter  class  of  workmen  should  have  shorter  rakers 
than  for  the  former. 

Saw-fitting  may  be  done  by  a  member  of  the  saw  crew  or  by  a 
regular  filer  who  works  either  in  the  forest  or  at  the  camp.  In 
the  former  case,  the  filer  usually  makes  a  saw  stand  by  cutting 
off  a  3-  or  4-inch  sapling  at  a  convenient  working  height  and 
then  sawing  a  slot  about  3  inches  deep  in  the  top  of  it  in  which  the 
back  of  the  saw  is  placed.  Post  supports  are  driven  in  the  ground 
at  a  distance  of  from  24  to  30  inches  on  either  side  of  the  sapling 
in  order  to  support  the  saw  ends.  The  saw  is  then  shifted  along 
the  supports,  as  the  filing  proceeds,  the  actual  work  being  done 
at  the  point  where  the  saw  blade  rests  in  the  slot  in  the  sapling. 
Some  convenient  stump  is  used  as  a  base  for  the  setting  block, 
if  a  "stump  set"  is  used. 

Filing  in  camps  is  done  in  a  specially  equipped  shop  provided 
with  a  permanent  saw  stand,  and  in  some  cases  with'a  power-driven 
emery  wheel  which  is  used  to  grind  down  the  gullets  of  the  saw. 
The  latter  practice  is  not  followed  when  saws  are  filed  in  the 
forest. 

The  steps  in  saw-fittings  are  as  follows : 

(1)  Joint  the  teeth.  This  consists  in  running  a  file  over  the 
tooth  points  in  order  to  make  all  of  them  a  uniform  length. 
The  dull  tooth  points  must  later  be  sharpened. 

Adjusting  the  length  of  the  rakers.  If  they  are  to  be 
swaged  they  are  left  the  same  length  as  the  teeth.  If  they  are 
to  remain  unswaged  they  are  cut  down  by  placing  the  raker  gauge 
over  the  raker  and  filing  down  to  the  required  length.  Rakers 
are  filed  to  a  keen,  sharp  edge  which  should  be  exactly  at  right 
angles  to  the  saw  blade.  If  the  teeth  are  to  be  swaged  they  are 
struck  lightly  on  the  point  with  a  hammer  and  the  point  turned 
down. 

(3)  File  the  teeth.  The  harder  the  wood  the  less  the  bevel 
required.  Having  chosen  the  style  of  tooth  point  to  be  used 
(Fig.  10)  file  each  tooth,  taking  care  not  to  reduce  its  length.  A 
beginner  is  inclined  to  file  too  heavily  and  thus  wear  down  the 
teeth  too  rapidly.  Start  at  the  heel  of  the  bevel  and  run  the  file 
towards  the  point  using  a  rather  light  free  stroke. 

(4)  Set  the  teeth.     This  may  be  done  either  with  a  setting 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS  AND   EQUIPMENT 


89 


block  and  hammer  or  with  an  anvil  and  hammer.^  The  teeth 
are  bent  slightly  away  from  the  line  of  the  saw  blade,  the  beveled 
face  alwaj's  being  on  the  inside.  Uniformity  in  set  is  secured 
by  the  use  of  the  tooth  set-gauge  or  "  spider  "  the  point  of  the  upper 
arm  in  contact  with  the  tooth  point  being  short  to  give  the  re- 


/  s 

Fig.  10.  —  The  Forms  of  Bevel  used  on  Cross-cut  Saws.  a.  Diamond  point 
bevel,  easy  to  maintain,  and  the  point  holds  well.  b.  Bevel  for  a  tooth 
where  there  are  no  rakers,  the  teeth  cleaning  out  the  sawdust,  c.  Bevel 
for  knots  and  frozen  timber  where  strength  is  needed  in  the  extreme  point 
—  not  adapted  for  fast  sawing,  d.  Round  point  for  fast,  smooth  sawing, 
in  knotty  timber,  e.  Bevel  for  fast,  smooth  sawing  —  teeth  strong.  /.  Flat, 
thin  bevel  for  soft  wood  and  fast  .sawing  —  point  is  not  as  strong  as  that 
shown  in  e.  g.  Bevel  adapted  for  general  work.  h.  Bevel  adapted  for 
general  work. 

quired  set.  When  the  tooth  is  spread  to  the  required  distance 
all  four  legs  of  the  tooth  set-gauge  will  rest  firmly  against  the 
saw. 

(5)  Side  dress  the  teeth.  If  there  are  any  feather  edges  on 
the  teeth  they  are  removed  by  the  use  of  the  side  file  or  an  emery 
stone. 

This  completes  the  operation  of  saw  fitting.  An  expert  filer 
fits  daily  from  twelve  to  fifteen  saws  of  average  length.  A  saw 
will  cut  from  400,000  to  500,000  board  feet  before  the  teeth 
become  so  short  that  it  is  discarded. 

'  See  page  87  for  the  amount  of  set  given  cross-cut  saws. 


90  LOGGING 

When  the  felHng  crew  does  the  log-making,  one  sharp  saw  is 
provided  each  day,  otherwise  a  sharp  saw  is  furnished  every  other 
day. 

Saws  filed  daily  are  serviceable  for  a  period  of  from  two  to 
four  months  and  are  then  turned  over  to  road-making  crews  and 
other  laborers  who  do  not  require  high-grade  tools. 


POWER    FELLING    MACHINES 

There  has  not  a  been  a  satisfactory  power-driven  tree-felling 
machine  placed  on  the  market.  Machines  of  various  types  have 
been  patented  and  offered  for  sale  but  they  have  not  proved  of 
practical  value. 

Devices  such  as  drag,  circular  and  endless-chain  saws  operated  by 
steam,  electricity,  compressed-air  or  gasoline  power  have  been 
devised,  but  they  have  all  been  too  heavy  and  bulky  for  transpor- 
tation in  the  forest.  Their  weight  is  not  only  a  handicap  in  getting 
the  machine  around  through  brushy  woods  and  over  rough 
bottom,  but  also  prevents  their  rapid  removal  from  the  vicinity 
of  falling  timber  where  they  are  continually  subject  to  damage. 


POWER   LOG-MAKING    MACHINES 

On  comparatively  level  land  in  an  open  forest  composed  of 
large  trees,  drag  saws,  called  "steam  dagos"  driven  by  compressed 
air  have  been  used  successfully  for  "  bucking"  logs. 

The  equipment  consists  of  a  traction  engine  with  an  air  com- 
pressor and  an  air  storage  tank.  The  saw,  which  may  be  at- 
tached readily  to  a  log  of  any  size,  is  driven  by  a  piston  working 
in  a  small  cylinder,  mounted  on  a  metal  frame  weighing  from  60 
to  75  pounds.  The  cylinder  is  connected  with  the  air  chamber 
on  the  engine  by  a  line  of  hose  of  sufficient  length  to  give  a  working 
radius  of  300  feet.  Three  frames  and  one  saw  are  the  usual 
equipment  for  an  outfit. 

Drag  saws  mounted  on  skids  and  driven  by  a  small  gasoline 
engine^  or  by  steam  power  are  used  extensivelj^  in  the  West 
to  buck  logs  into  fire-wood  lengths  for  logging  engine  use. 
The  maximum  capacity  is  approximately  25  cords  daily.  Gaso- 
line-driven saws  also  have  been  used  successfully  in  the  South 
^  Usually  from  3  to  4  horse  power. 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS  AND   EQUIPMENT 


91 


for  felling  timber  along  logging  railroad  rights-of-way  when  it 
was  necessary  to  cut  trees  at  or  near  the  ground  level. 


Fallers  and  log-makers  require  wedges  to  aid  them  in  directing 
the  fall  of  trees  and  to  prevent  the  binding  of  the  saw  in  the  cut. 
They  are  made  either  of  metal  or  of  hardwood.  Iron  or  steel 
wedges  may  be  made  by  the  camp  blacksmith,  or  purchased  from 
dealers  in  loggers  supplies. 

The  size  and  weight  of  metal  wedgee  vary  with  the  work  for 
which  they  are  used,  and  the  pattern  is  largely  a  matter  of  in- 


a  b  c  d  e  f 

Fig.  11.  —  Some  Types  of  Wedges  used  by  Loggers,  a  and  b.  Wood  chop>- 
per's  wedges,  c.  Tie  maker's  and  faller's  wedge,  d.  Faller's  wedge, 
e.  Log  maker's  wedge,  Pacific  Coast.    /.  Faller's  wedge,  Pacific  Coast. 

dividual  preference.  Felling  wedges,  especially  when  used  in  large 
timber,  are  longer  than  those  used  for  log-making.  A  common 
form  of  metal  wedge  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  by  fallers  is  made 
from  1-inch  steel  and  is  about  13  inches  long  and  3  inches  wide 
at  the  point  and  weighs  from  6  to  8  pounds.  In  Maine  the 
felling  wedges  are  shorter  and  may  be  shaped  somewhat  like  a 
hatchet  head.  They  are  6  or  7  inches  long,  3  inches  wide  at  the 
base,  and  1^  inches  wide  and  1  inch  thick  at  the  top.  On  the 
Pacific  Coast  the  buckers  often  use  a  wedge  similar  to  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  lie.  In  most  regions  fallers  and  log-makers  use 
the  same  type  of  wedge. 

Since  smooth-faced  metal  wedges  are  likely  to  rebound,  shallow 
grooves  often  are  made  on  the  faces  so  that  when  driven  into  a 
cut  the  pressure  causes  the  wood  to  partially  fill  the  groove  and 
prevents  any  backward  movement.  The  faces  are  sometimes 
roughened  slightly  with  a  cold  chisel  to  accomplish  the  same 
purpose. 


92  LOGGING 

Hardwood  wedges  of  hickory,  hard  maple,  beech,  ironwood, 
dogwood  and  persimmon  are  frequently  used  in  the  southern 
pine  region  when  local  timber  for  their  manufacturers  accessible. 
They  are  preferred  because  they  are  inexpensive  and  hold  well 
in  a  cut.  They  may  be  made  by  the  sawyers  as  needed  or  by 
contract.  They  are  ordinarily  6  or  8  inches  long,  2|  or  3|  inches 
wide  and  1  inch  in  thickness  at  the  head. 

Felling  crews  in  the  Northwest  usually  carry  two  long  and 
three  short  wedges  and  log-makers,  five  bucking  wedges.  In 
other  regions  where  the  timber  is  of  medium  size  the  sawyers 
use  from  two  to  four  wedges.  From  four  to  five  wooden  wedges 
per  day  are  required  by  a  saw  crew  of  two  men. 

Metal  wedges  are  either  carried  by  the  fallers  in  a  small  canvas 
sack  slung  over  the  shoulder,  or  one  is  fastened  at  each  end  of  a 
piece  of  hay  wire,  3  or  4  feet  long.  Wooden  wedges  are  carried 
in  the  hip  pockets  of  the  workmen. 


T^."^     a    1 

\  c  ° 

i  p" ,  ° 

1          '     ' 

j/o" 

\ 

j: ;  '"!' 

'            Mt 

ntlix 

r^' 

Fig.  12.  —  A  Spring  Board  used  by  Fallers  in  the  Northwest. 
MAULS   AND    SLEDGES 

Iron  wedges  may  be  driven  with  a  wooden  maul  made  by  the 
camp  blacksmith  from  hard  maple,  yellow  birch  or  any  tough 
wood.  A  common  form  used  in  Maine  is  made  from  a  round 
tree  section,  6  inches  in  diameter  and  from  26  to  30  inches  long. 
An  8-inch  head  is  left  on  one  end^f  the  section  and  the  remainder 
is  trimmed  down  to  a  diameter  of  2  inches  to  form  a  handle. 
The  head  may  or  may  not  be  bound  with  iron  hoops  to  prevent 
splitting.  Steel  sledge  hammers  of  8  or  10  pounds'  weight  are 
used  in  the  Northwest  for  driving  metal  wedges.  Wooden  wedges 
are  driven  either  with  an  ax  or  a  sledge. 

SPRING    BOARDS 

These  are  used  only  in  the  Northwest,  and  serve  as  plat- 
forms on  which  notchers  and  fallers  stand  when  performing 
their  work.     The  spring  board  with  the  spur  uppermost  is  thrust 


WOODWORI^RS'   TOOLS  AND  EQUIPMENT 


93 


into  a  horizontal  notch  cut  into  the  tree.  When  the  faller's 
weight  is  apphed  to  the  outer  end  of  the  board  the  spur  is  forced 
into  the  wood,  preventing  the  board  from  slipping  and  allowing 
it  to  be  swung  around,  the  spur  acting  as  a  hinge.  Spring  boards 
usually  are  made  in  the  camp  blacksmith  shop. 

KILHIG    OR    SAMPSON 

This  tool  is  used  as  a  lever  to  aid  in  directing  the  fall  of  a  tree. 
It  consists  of  a  polo  3  or  4  inches  in  diameter  and  from  <S  to  16 


Fig.  13.  —  A  Kilhig  or  Sampson  used  in  directing  the  Fall  of  a  Tree. 

feet  long,  either  sharpened,  or  armed  on  one  end  with  a  spike. 
The  pointed  end  of  the  pole  is  placed  in  a  notch  in  the  tree 
trunk  from  5  to  8  feet  above  ground,  the  free  end  projecting 
downward  to  a  point  10  or  12  inches  above  the  ground  where 
it  is  supported  on  a  peavey  handle  or  a  pole  the  lower  end  of 
which  is  firmly  planted  in  the  ground.  A  laborer  grasps  the 
free  end  of  the  peavey  handle  and  by  pressing  forward  is  able 
to  exert  a  strong  pressure  against  the  bole  of  the  tree.  Kilhigs 
are  frequently  made  as  needed  by  the  saw  crew  since  it  is  easier 
to  cut  a  pole  than  it  is  to  carry  one.  This  tool  is  in  common 
use  in  the  Northeast.  There  are  several  patent  tools  of  similar 
character  used  in  European  forests  but  they  have  not  met  with 
favor  in  this  country. 


94 


8  1 


LOGGING 


TREE    TALLER 

The  tree  faller  or  jack  (Fig.  14)  has  been  introduced  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  to  enable  fallers  to  throw  trees  in  any  direction 
regardless  of  lean.  It  consists  of  two  lever-arms  which  are 
spread  by  means  of  a  lever-actuated  screw.  The  arms  rest  on  an 
oscillating  plate,  which  serves  to  increase  the  bearing  surface.    The 


From  Bui.  711,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Fig.  14.  —  A  Patent  Tree  Faller,  showing  the  Manner  of  Insertion  in  the 
Notch  (left),  and  the  Position  of  the  Jaws  when  the  Cut  has  been  opened 
about  Seven  Inches. 

opening  between  jaws,  when  fully  extended,  is  7  inches.  The 
weight  of  the  tree  faller  is  166  pounds,  and  is  so  constructed 
that  it  may  be  separated  into  two  loads  of  nearly  equal  weight 
for  ease  in  moving  it  from  one  tree  to  another.  It  has  proved 
of-  especial  service  in  throwing  timber  which  is  heavy  when  it 
has  been  necessary  to  change  the  normal  direction  of  fall  because 
of  danger  of  excessive  breakage  4jie  to  bad  ground  conditions. 


GUN    STICK 

Fallers  in  the  redwood  region  sometimes  use  a  gun  stick  to 
determine  the  direction  of  fall  of  a  tree  that  has  been  undercut. 
The  usual  length  of  a  gun  stick  is  8  feet  overall,  although  10-foot 
sticks  are  sometimes  used  when  very  large  timber  is  being  felled. 
Two  types  are  in  common  use,  Fig.  15a  being  preferred  by  some 
because  the  wood  on  the  ''diamond  "  on  Fig.  156  sometimes 
swells  during  wet  weather  and  does  not  work  easily.  A  faller 
standing  between  the  extended  legs  of  the  gun  stick,  which  he 
grasps  about  3  feet  from  the  ends,  places  a  leg  at  each  outer 
corner  of  the  undercut.     Holding  the  stick  firmly  against  the 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS  AND   EQUIPMENT  95 

tree,  he  stoops  down  until  he  can  sight  from  the  bolt  to  the  rivet, 
which  line  of  sight  indicates  the  direction  in  which  the  tree  will 
fall  provided  it  stands  straight  and  the  undercut  has  been  made 
properly.  If  the  direction  of  fall  is  to  be  altered,  one  leg  of  the 
gun  stick  is  slipped  around  the  tree,  until  the  desired  direction  of 
sight  is  attained.  The  point  on  the  tree  at  which  the  shifted 
leg  touches  indicates  the  outer  edge  of  the  revised  undercut. 


Fig.  15.  —  Two  Types  of  Gun  Sticks  used  by  Redwood  Fallers. 
MEASURING    STICKS 

The  measuring  sticks  carried  by  log-makers  usually  are  8  feet 
long,  where  logs  24  feet  and  under  are  being  cut.  In  the  North- 
west they  often  are  10  feet  long.  They  may  be  made  by  the 
sawyers  from  a  straight  sapling  with  little  taper,  or  by  the  camp 
blacksmith  from  squared  sticks  which  are  cut  to  exact  length  and 
on  which  marks  are  placed  at  two-foot  intervals.  Unless  wooden 
measuring  sticks  are  metal-tipped,  or  have  a  nail  driven  in  each 
end,  the  buckers  are  apt  to  chop  off  one  end  when  marking  off  log 
lengths  on  the  bole.  Sticks  shortened  in  this  manner  are  often 
the  cause  of  logs  being  cut  to  improper  lengths.  It  can  be  cor- 
rected by  allowing  buckers  to  use  only  those  sticks  which  are 
furnished  by  the  company  and  the  length  of  which  is  frequently 
checked  by  the  saw  boss.  A  measuring  stick  made  from  1/4 
inch  round  iron  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  the  wooden  ones. 
It  is  light  in  weight,  cannot  be  shortened  by  carelessly  chopping 
off  the  ends,  and  when  not  in  use  may  be  stuck  upright  in  the 
ground  near  at  hand. 


96 


LOGGING 


CHISEL  BILL 


Fig.  16.  —  A  Socket  Peavey. 


The  peavey  is  used  as  a  a  lever  to  handle  logs,  and  is  an  indis- 
pensable part  of  a  logger's  equipment.  The  standard  maple  or 
ash  handle  is  5,  5^  or  6  feet  long,  but  it  may  be  made  in  special 

lengths     from    4^     to     8     feet. 

There    are    two   types,  namely, 

Jll     m  the  socket  peavey  and  the  clip 

I      P^  peavey. 

"'      '"^^^  The    handle    of    the    first    is 

fitted  into  a  socket,  which  is 
armed  on  the  lower  end  with  a 
pike,  and  on  the  upper  end  of 
the  socket  is  a  clasp  to  which 
the  hook  is  bolted. 

The  second  has  a  pike  driven 
into  the  end  of  the  handle,  which 
is  bound  with  a  metal  band  to 
prevent  the  wood  from  splitting. 
The  hook  is  attached  to  a  clip 
or  clasp  independent  of  the  pike. 
The  hooks  are  of  three  types,  namely,  "round  bill,"  "duck  bill" 
and  "chisel."  The  round  bill  is  preferred  for  summer  work 
because  it  does  not  stick  in  the  log;  the 
duck  bill  is  best  for  frozen  timber  as  it 
will  penetrate  the  wood  more  readily  than 
the  other  forms;  the  chisel  point  is  in  lim- 
ited use. 

CANT    HOOKS 

Cant  hooks  are  used  for  purposes  simi- 
lar to  the  peavey,  although  they  are 
employed  more  around  mills  and  in  hand- 
ling  sawed  timber   than  in  handling  logs. 

Standard  handles  are  4^,  5  and  5|  feet  in  jtjq   17 A  Cant  Hook. 

length.     They  are  shod  on  the  end  with  a 

heavy  band  of  iron,  carrying  on  its  under  side  a  "toe"  which 
replaces  the  pike  on  the  peavey.  A  hook  of  the  same  character 
as  that  on  the  peavey  is  fastened  to  the  handle  by  a  clasp. 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS  AND  EQUIPMENT 


97 


PICKAROON 

Laborers  engaged  in  bringing  crossties,  stave  bolts  and  other 
timber  down  steep  slopes  often  use  a  pickaroon,  which  has  a 
handle  36  or  38  inches  long  on  the  end  of  which  is  attached  a 
head  with  a  recurved  pike.  These  heads  are  frequently  made 
from  worn-out  ax  heads  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  cutting 
edge. 


UNDERCUTTERS 

The  undercutter  is  a  tool  used  by  the  "bucker"  or  log- 
in the  Northwest.  It  serves  as  a  support  for  the  saw 
making  an  undercut  on  a  fallen  tree. 

It  is  a  round  or  flat  rod  of  iron 
about  2  feet  long  with  a  head  on  one 
end  and  single  or  double  claws  on 
the  other.  These  claws  are  sharp  and 
are  driven  into  the  side  of  the  bole. 
Sliding  on  this  rod  is  a  block  carrying 
a  milled  wheel  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  to  accommodate  the  depth  of 
cut,  and  on  this  the  back  of  the  saw 
rests.  Buckers  frequently  dispense 
with  undercutters  because  of  the 
annoyance  of  carrying  them  and  in- 
sert the  bit  of  an  ax  in  the  bole  in 
such  a  way  that  the  ax  handle  serves 
as  a  base  on  which  the  back  of  the 
saw  may  ride. 


maker 
when 


1 

lil 

d: 

"1 

it 

s;_;l— 3 

D 

Fig.  18. 

—  A  Type  of  Under- 

cutter 

used  in   the 

Pacific 

Coast 

Forests.       a 

is    the 

saw    blade    resting 

on   the 

milled  wheel. 

USE    OF   KEROSENE 

In  felling  coniferous  woods,  resin  collects  on  the  saw  and  soon 
causes  it  to  bind.  This  is  remedied  by  the  use  of  kerosene. 
Fallers  and  log-makers  in  the  pine  forests  of  the  South  carry  a 
pint  bottle  of  kerosene,  fitted  with  a  stopper  made  from  green 
pine  needles.  The  crew  usually  keeps  a  gallon  can  near  at  hand 
from  which  to  replenish  its  supply.  At  frequent  intervals  the 
saw  is  sprinkled  on  both  sides  with  the  oil.  A  crew  cutting  from 
12,000  to  15,000  feet  log  scale,  daily,  will  use  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  three  pints  of  kerosene.  Four  gallons  per  week  is  re- 
garded as  a  liberal  allowance. 


CHAPTER  VI 
FELLING   AND   LOG-MAKING 


The  period  of  the  year  in  which  felling  is  done  is  governed  by 
chmatic  conditions  and  by  the  method  of  logging  followed. 

Where  loggers  rely  on  a  heavy  snowfall  to  furnish  a  bottom 
for  transporting  logs,  felling  begins  in  the  late  summer  or  early 
fall  and  continues  until  the  snow  becomes  too  deep  for  profit- 
able skidding,  which  is  about  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  De- 
cember. 

On  railroad  operations  in  the  Northern  States,  felling  is  carried 
on  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  ceasing  only  when 
the  snow  becomes  too  deep  for  operation,  or  when  deemed  ad- 
visable because  of  market  conditions. 

In  the  coniferous  forests  of  the  South  and  in  the  Northwest, 
felling  is  carried  on  the  year  round  as  weather  conditions  seldom 
interfere  seriously  with  logging. 

Hardwood  felling  may  continue  throughout  the  year.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  sapwood  of  species  such  as  hickory  is  subject 
to  insect  damage^  if  cut  during  the  summer  months,  the  season 
of  felling  may  be  restricted  to  the  resting  period  of  the  tree,  although 
hardwoods  can  be  cut  safely  at  any  season  if  they  are  manu- 
factured in  a  short  time  and  the  lumber  well  piled  and  seasoned. 
The  galleries  made  in  sap  wood  by  insects  afford  an  entrance 

1  Certain  species  of  ambrosia  beetles,  "sawj^ers"  and  timber  worms  are  very 
destructive  to  the  sapwood  of  felled  hardwood  and  coniferous  timber  during  a 
portion  of  the  year.  The  danger  of  attack  is  greatest  in  timber  cut  during  the 
fall  and  winter  and  left  on  the  ground  or  in  close  piles,  during  the  early  spring 
and  summer;  also  to  trees  cut  during  the  warm  season.  The  presence  of 
bark  is  necessary  for  infestation  by  most  of  these  insects  and  the  danger  can  be 
largely  avoided  by  not  allowing  the  logs  to  accumulate  during  the  danger  season, 
or  by  barking  such  as  cannot  be  removed  within  a  few  weeks.  (A  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  these  problems  may  be  found  in  various  publications  of  the  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Entomology.) 


FELLING  AND   LOG-MAKING  99 

for  the  spores  of  certain  fungi^  which  cause  a  discoloration.  The 
fungi  develop  most  rapidly  during  warm,  sultry  weather.  Sum- 
mer-felled timber  may  be  very  seriously  damaged  by  insects 
and  fungi  in  from  two  to  four  weeks. 

The  felling  time  of  trees,  such  as  oak,  is  sometimes  restricted 
to  the  late  summer  and  early  fall  if  the  timber  is  to  be  trans- 
ported by  water  because  heavy  species  cut  at  this  season  and 
allowed  to  dry  for  from  sixty  to  ninety  days  become  more  buoyant. 

The  logging  of  hemlock  often  is  restricted  to  the  period  between 
May  and  August,  during  which  time  the  bark  will  peel.^  As  it 
is  a  valuable  by-product,  used  for  tanning  purposes,  the  logger 
seldom  cuts  the  timber  without  saving  the  bark. 

Tanbarks  are  also  secured  from  chestnut  oak  {Quercus  prinus) 
and  from  the  tanbark  oak  of  California  {Quercus  densi flora). 
The  season  for  peeling  chestnut  oak  is  from  early  April  until 
the  end  of  June,  and  for  tanbark  oak,  from  the  middle  of  May  to 
the  middle  of  July.  The  timber  in  both  cases  is  now  used  for  com- 
mercial purposes,  although  the  bark  often  is  the  more  valuable 
product. 

Coppice  fellings  should  be  made  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring  because  the  sprouts  are  then  more  thrifty  than  those  from 
trees  cut  during  the  growing  period.^  Late  winter  felling  is 
preferred  because  there  is  less  chance  for  the  bark  to  be  loosened 
from  the  stool  by  the  collection  and  freezing  of  moisture. 

The  season  of  the  year  in  which  timber  is  cut  does  not,  so  far 
as  known,  influence  its  strength,  although  it  may  affect  its  dura- 
bility. II;ir(lwoo(ls  arc  more  comi^lcx  in  sliuclurc  and  arc  more 
easily  damaged  in  seasoning  than  are  softwoods.  Winter-felled 
hardwood  timber  air  dries  more  satisfactorily  than  summer-felled 
tunber   because   the   water   content   evaporates   slowly   and   the 

^  There  are  several  genera  of  fungi  which  attack  the  sapwood  of  deciduous 
and  coniferous  woods,  causing  a  bluish,  blackish  or  reddish  discoloration. 
The  infection  takes  place  largely  through  spores  carried  into  the  galleries 
made  by  ambrosia  beetles,  saw^'ers  and  other  borers. 

-  Bark  from  hemlock  logs  cut  in  December  or  later  may  be  successfully 
peeled  from  May  to  July  inclusive,  provided  they  are  properly  decked.  The 
quality  of  bark  is  said  to  be  equal  to  that  peeled  in  the  usual  manner  during 
the  summer  months.  Bark  from  Ipgs  that  have  been  in  the  water  is  valueless. 
See  American  Lumberman,  .July  21,  1900,  p.  IS;   Dec.  .30,  1916,  p.  31. 

3  See  Chestnut  in  Southern  Maryland,  by  Raphael  Zon.  Bulletin  No.  53, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  1903,  pp.  14-17. 


100  LOGGING 

woody  structure  adapts  itself  to  the  gradual  shrinkage  with  a 
minimum  amount  of  checking.  Some  loggers  apply  a  coat  of 
thick  whitewash  to  hardwood  logs  to  prevent  end  checking. 
Others  use  a  preparation  composed  of  one  part  lamp  black  to 
sixty  parts  of  rosin.  The  mixture  should  be  heated  but  not  boiled, 
then  thoroughly  stirred,  and  a  coat  1/8  inch  thick  applied. 

These  preparations  should  not  be  applied  until  the  moisture 
has  ceased  to  ooze  from  the  log. 

DEADENING 

Deadening  or  girdling  consists  in  cutting  a  ring  around  the  tree 
deep  enough  to  penetrate  to  the  heart  wood.  This  ring  is  made 
just  above  the  root  swelling,  approximately  at  the  sawing  point. 

The  deadening  of  trees  reduces  the  water  content  of  the  boles 
and  renders  them  lighter  in  weight.  It  is  seldom  resorted  to 
with  most  species,  because  those  which  cannot  be  floated  when 
cut  in  the  ordinary  way  are  either  left  standing  or  are  hauled 
by  rail  to  the  mill.  Green  cypress  timber  does  not  float  well, 
hence  deadening  or  girdling  is  universal  when  timber  is  floated 
to  the  mill.  Even  when  cypress  timber  is  railroaded  it  is 
usually  girdled  because  (1)  the  logs  will  then  float  in  the 
mill  pond,  (2)  the  sapwood  is  rendered  somewhat  tougher  and 
skidding  tongs  do  not  pull  out  so  readily,  and  (3)  the  heartwood 
in  green  timber  swells  during  cutting  and  binds  the  saw. 

Logging  in  cypress  swamps  is  carried  on  throughout  the  year 
and  some  girdle  timber  at  any  convenient  time,  although  the 
sapwood  is  more  subject  to  insect  attacks  at  certain  seasons. 
The  greatest  damage  occurs  during  the  months  from  May  to  Sep- 
tember, inclusive^.  Girdling  precedes  felling  from  a  few  weeks 
to  several  months  and  generally  is  done  by  contract  for  a  given 
sum  per  tree.  One  man  will  girdle  about  twenty-five  trees  per 
day. 

DIRECTION    OF    FALL 

This  should  be  governed  by  the  following  factors : 

(1)     The  lean  of  the  tree.     A  straight  or  slightly  leaning  tree 

may  be  sawed  to  fall  in  any  direction  by  the  use  of  wedges. 

Heavily  leaning  trees  can  be  thrown  by  the  same  means  in  any 

*  Hopkins,  A.  D. :  Pinhole  Injury  to  Girdled  Cypress  in  the  South  Atlantic 
States.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Cir.  No.  82,  1907. 


FELLING  AND   LOG-MAKING  101 

one  of  three  directions,  namely,  as  it  leans  or  to  either  side. 
Where  a  tree  leans  only  slightly  and  its  inclination  cannot  be 
determined  readily  by  the  eye,  an  ax  handle  held  suspended  like 
a  plumb  line  between  the  line  of  sight  and  the  tree  will  serve  as 
an  indicator. 

In  determining  the  direction  of  fall  the  choice  is  influenced  by 
the  shape  of  the  crown.  Very  few  crowns  are  symmetrical, 
one  side  often  being  heavier  than  the  other,  because  of  better 
light  conditions.  This  preponderance  of  weight  on  one  side  acts 
as  a  powerful  lever  and,  therefore,  must  be  considered  by  the 
faller. 

(2)  The  avoidance  of  lodging  one  tree  in  another. 

(3)  The  selection  of  a  spot  where  the  bole  will  not  be  broken 
on  stumps,  rocks  or  other  objects.  This  requires  special  atten- 
tion in  handling  large  or  brittle  timber.  In  yellow  pine  the  loss 
from  this  source  may  be  1  per  cent  of  the  total,  while  in  western 
red  cedar  it  is  often  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  and  in  redwood  even 
higher.  Boles  of  the  latter  are  sometimes  so  badly  damaged 
in  felling  that  they  are  worthless.  A  bed  for  redwood  is  fre- 
quently made  by  leveling  the  ground  and  covering  it  with  brush. 

(4)  The  simplification  of  skidding  work.  In  brushy  regions 
it  is  desirable  to  fell  trees  parallel  to  the  skidding  trail,  since  this 
aids  the  teamster  in  getting  out  the  logs.  Thnber  cut  for  snaking 
with  power  skidders  should  be  felled  away  from  or  toward  the 
direction  of  haul,  especially  if  long  timber  is  being  handled, 
])ecause  it  is  difficult  to  drag  out  logs  that  are  placed  otherwise. 
Timber  on  slopes  should  be  felled  either  up  or  down  according 
to  the  location  of  the  nearest  accessible  skidding  trail.  Trees 
felled  up  steep  slopes  are  less  subject  to  breakage  because  the 
distance  of  fall  is  less.  It  is,  however,  a  more  dangerous  method 
because  the  trees  may  shoot  down  the  slope. 

ORGANIZATION    OF    CREW^S 

The  organization  of  crews  for  felling  and  log-making  differs  in 
the  various  forest  regions.  Sawyers  in  the  Lake  States  often 
work  in  crews  of  two  under  the  direct  supervision  of  a  saw  boss,  who 
keeps  a  close  check  on  the  work,  assigns  each  crew  to  a  given 
territorj^,  specifies  the  lengths  of  logs  and  sees  that  waste  does  not 
occur  in  cutting. 

In  southern  pine  operations  a  similar  plan  may  be  followed. 


102 


LOGGING 


the  sawj^ers  being  responsible  to  the  logging  boss  or  to  a  con- 
tractor instead  of  a  saw  boss;  or  two  or  three  saw  crews  may  be 
in  charge  of  a  sub-foreman,  called  a  "chipper  and  notcher,"  who 
notches  trees  for  felling,  marks  off  the  log  lengths,  and  keeps  a 
record  of  the  amount  cut  by  each  crew.  The  duty  of  the  sawyers 
is  to  fell  the  timber  and  to  cut  it  up  into  logs. 

In  Maine,  felling  often  is  in  charge  of  a  sub-foreman  called 
the  "head  chopper"  who  is  the  boss  of  a  yarding  crew,  which 


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Fig.  19. 


12  16  20  24  28  32 

Diameter  of  Trees  Breast  High 

By  permission  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Graph  showing  the  Effect  of  Slope  on  the  Output  of  FelUng  Crews. 
Inland  Empire. 


includes  two  fallers,  the  swampers,  teamster,  sled  tender  and 
skidway  man.  The  head  chopper  notches  the  trees,  lays  off  the 
log  lengths  and  directs  the  work  of  the  yarding  crew. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  notching,  felHng  and  log-making  may  be 
,  performed  by  separate  crews.  A  notcher,  who  selects  the  trees 
to  be  felled  and  makes  the  undercut,  is  assigned  to  each  j^arding 
crew.  Two  fallers  then  cut  the  timber  and  the  notcher  marks 
off  the  log  lengths  for  the  guidance  of  the  buck(TS  who  follow. 
The  latter  work  singly,  and  two  or  three  are  required  for  each 


FELLING  AND   LUG-MAKING  103 

felling  crew.  On  some  operations  a  notcher  is  not  employed, 
the  undercut  being  made  by  the  fallers.  This  is  now  considered 
the  best  method. 

The  output  per  falling  crew  or  falling  and  })ucking  crew  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  character  of  the  topography,  the  amount  of  brush 
and  windfall,  the  size  of  the  timber,  the  season  of  the  year,  the 
method  of  payment,  and  the  effective  time  put  in  by  the  crew. 
The  steeper  the  slope  or  the  rougher  the  bottom,  the  lower  the 
output  per  crew  because  of  the  greater  difficulty  of  getting  around 
and  the  greater  care  which  must  be  exercised  in  felling  the  timber  to 
prevent  breakage.  The  effect  of  slope  upon  output  is  shown 
graphically  in  Fig.  19.  Heavy  brush  and  windfall  also  reduce 
the  output  of  a  crew  because  of  the  greater  amount  of  swamping 
required  before  a  tree  can  be  felled  and  because  greater  care  must 
be  exercised  to  prevent  breakage.  Sawing  studies  made  in  the 
Inland  Empire  show  that  the  output  per  crew  increases  with  an 
increase  in  the  diameter  breast  high  of  the  tree,  until  diameters 
of  34  or  36  inches  are  reached,  at  which  point  the  output  begins 
to  decline.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  greater  amount  of  rest 
required  when  the  larger  trees  are  felled.  Average-sized  trees 
can  be  felled  without  stopping  to  rest,  while  the  larger  ones 
require  one  or  more  resting  periods  in  which  the  fallers  can  "catch 
their  breath."  See  Figs.  19  and  20.  Timber  cuts  more  easily 
in  the  summer  than  in  the  winter,  because  frozen  timber  is  harder 
to  cut;  also,  workmen's  nmscles  are  more  sup|)le  during  the  warm 
months  than  (hning  the  cold  1  )ecause  tliey  do  not  lieeome  chilled  dur- 
ing I  he  resting  period.  Fallers  and  buckers  working  on  a  eon(  racl. 
basis  will  do  more  work  than  those  who  are  paid  a  stated  wage.^ 
The  effective  time  put  in  by  a  crew  is  determined  not  only  by  the 
recognized  hours  of  labor,  Ijut  also  by  the  distance  which  the  work- 
men must  walk  from  camp  to  the  job,  since  if  the  distance  is  1 
mile  or  more,  from  10  to  20  per  cent  of  the  working  day  may 
be  consumed  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  job. 

The  average  day's  work  for  two  men  felling,  bucking  and 
swamping  lodgepole  and  other  small  timber,  running  from  fifteen 
to  sixteen  logs  per  thousand  board  feet  is  from  4000  to  5000  board 
feet;  in  small  yellow  pine  timber,  running  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
logs  per  thousand,  from  7000  to  7500  feet,  and  where  logs  run 
from  six  to  ten  per  thousand,  from  10,000  to  15,000  feet.  Two 
'  See  Fig.  20. 


104 


LOGGING 


fallers  will  average  about  5000  feet,  log  scale,  daily,  in  eastern 
spruce,  about  10,000  feet  in  southern  hardwoods,  and  from 
25,000  to  30,000  feet  in  Douglas  fir.  Buckers  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  average  from  12,000  to  15,000  feet  each,  per  day. 


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Tree  Diameter  Breast  High-Inches 

By  permission  U.  S.  Forest  Service 


Fig.  20.  —  Graph  showing  the  Influence  of  Method  of  Payment  on  the  Out- 
put of  FelHng  and  Log-making  Crews.     Inland  Empire. 


CUTTING   AREAS 

Sawyers  working  on  a  wage  basis  may  not  be  assigned  to 
specific  bounds,  but  cut  where  the  foreman  of  the  camp  or  the 
saw  boss  direct.  When  the  work  is  done  by  contract,  fallers 
are  assigned  to  definite  bounds  in  order  to  facilitate  the  measure- 
ment of  the  cut  timber  and  to  insure  the  felling  of  all  merchant- 
able timber;  otherwise  the  workmen  may  leave  trees  which  arc 
difficult  to  cut  or  which  would  entail  so  much  labor  that  their 
daily  earnings  would  be  reduced. 


FELLING  AND  LOG-MAKING 


105 


NOTCHING 

A  wedge-shaped  notch  or  undercut  is  made  on  the  trunk  in 
the  direction  of  fall,  to  guide  the  tree  and  to  prevent  the  bole 
from  splitting  before  it  is  competely  severed  from  the  stump. 
It  has  a  horizontal  base  extending  slightly  past  the  center  of  the 
tree  if  felling  is  done  with  the  ax,  and  from  one-fifth  to  one- 
fourth  of  the  diameter  when  feUing  is  done  with  the  saw.  The 
undercut  on  trees  that  lean  heavily  in  the  felling  direction  is 


Fig.  21.  —  The  Undercut  on  a  Douglas  Fir  Tree.  The  fallers  are  stand- 
ing on  spring  boards  to  enable  them  to  make  the  cut  above  the  root  swelling. 
Washington. 

made  deeper  than  usual  in  order  to  insure  a  clean  break.  On 
those  that  lean  away  from  the  felling  direction  a  small  notch  is 
cut  because  it  gives  the  wedges  greater  power.  In  felling  large 
redwood  the  sloping  face  of  the  undercut  is  sometimes  made 
below  the  horizontal  cut  instead  of  above  it  in  order  to  avoid 
the  waste  of  timber  which  would  occur  if  the  usual  method  were 
followed. 

The  notch  is  placed  from  2  to  4  inches  below  the  point  at 
which  the  felling  cut  is  started  on  the  opposite  side.  Its  height 
above  ground  is  determined  entirely  by  the  policy  of  the  logger 


106  LOGGING 

regarding  stump  heights.  Notches  may  be  cut  with  the  ax, 
but  the  horizontal  cut  usually  is  made  with  a  saw  and  the  notch 
completed  with  an  ax. 

Hardwood  timber,  if  improporly  notched,  pulls  long  splinters 
from  the  heart  wood.  This  may  be  overcome  by  continuing  the 
center  of  the  undercut  into  the  heart  of  the  tree.  When  the  tree 
is  severed  on  the  opposite  side  a  clean  break  will  result. 

On  small-  and  medium-sized  timber  the  notch  can  readily  be 
cut  by  a  workman  standing  on  the  ground.  A  form  of  scaffold 
must  be  provided  for  notching  and  felling  large  timber  and  for 
this  purpose  spring  boards  are  used.  When  trees  of  very  large 
size  such  as  redwoods  are  cut  the  spring  board  may  be  replaced 
by  a  scaffold  supported  either  on  spring  boards  or  on  timbers. 


With  the  Ax.  —  The  ax  was  used  almost  exclusively  as  a  felling 
tool  during  the  early  period  of  logging  in  the  United  States  and 
is  still  used  for  small  trees.  In  felling  with  an  ax,  the  operation 
begins  by  cutting  a  wedge-shaped  notch  opposite  and  slightly 
higher  than  the  undercut.  This  cut  is  continued  towards  the 
center  of  the  bole  until  the  tree  falls.  Wedges  cannot  be  used 
in  felling  with  the  ax,  therefore,  it  is  more  difficult  to  throw  a 
tree  in  any  direction  except  that  in  which  it  leans.  It  is  estima- 
ted that  from  10  to  20  board  feet  per  tree  of  spruce  is  lost  when 
the  ax  is  used  exclusively  for  felling  and  log-making. 

With  the  Ax  and  Smv.  —  This  method  is  now  universally  used 
for  nicdiuni-  and  large-sized  timl)er  because  a  loss  both  of  (inu^ 
and  wood  occurs  in  using  the  ax  alone.  The  use  of  a  cross-cut 
saw  increases  by  about  10  per  cent  the  number  of  trees  a  given 
saw  crew  can  fell  in  a  day. 

When  the  bark  contains  sand  or  other  gritty  substances  it  is 
customary  to  remove  it  from  the  base  of  the  tree  at  the  point 
where  the  saw  cut  is  to  be  made.  The  saw  cut  is  then  started 
on  a  level  with  or  slightly  above,  and  opposite  the  undercut. 
When  the  saw  has  buried  itself,  wooden  or  iron  Vv-edges  are  driven 
in  behind  it  to  prevent  binding.  As  sawing  proceeds  the  wedge 
point  is  made  to  follow  the  back  of  the  saw  by  occasional  blows 
from  an  ax  or  a  sledge.  Sawing  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the 
undercut  progresses  until  the  tree  begins  to  fall,  whereupon 
one  sawyer  withdraws  the  saw  and  both  seek  a  place  of  safety. 


FELLING  AND   LOG-MAKING  107 

On  very  large  timber,  fallers  first  saw  deeply  on  both  sides  of 
the  undercut,  then  saw  around  the  tree,  making  the  last  cut  on 
the  back  side  of  the  bole  parallel  to  the  undercut. 

Trees  with  rotten  hearts  require  different  treatment  from 
sound  ones  because  the  decayed  bole  is  apt  to  give  way  before  it 
is  severed  from  the  stump.  A  cut  a  few  inches  deep  is  made 
around  the  tree  and  then  the  bole  is  severed  from  the  rear  as  in 
felling  sound  timber.  Even  if  the  bole  gives  way  before  the  cut 
is  completed  it  seldom  splits  badly.  Felling  during  high  winds 
is  accomplished  in  the  same  manner.  The  direction  of  fall  under 
either  of  the  above  circumstances  often  cannot  be  determined 
accurately,  and  the  work  is  considered  hazardous. 

When  timber  is  felled  in  a  direction  other  than  that  in  which 
it  leans  the  faller  leaves  the  most  wood  between  the  saw  cut  and 
the  undercut  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  in  which  the  tree  leans. 
This  tends  to  pull  the  tree  in  the  desired  direction. 

STUMP    HEIGHTS 

There  is  no  rule  other  than  a  commercial  one  regulating  stump 
heights  in  different  sections  of  the  country.  Loggers  in  early 
days  cut  very  high  stumps  in  order  to  avoid  root  swellings,  pitchy 
butts  and  other  defects. 

The  greatest  waste  from  this  source  occurred  in  the  Pacific 
(yoast  forests  where  stumps  sometimes  from  15  to  18  feet  high 
were  left  by  the  early  logging  operators.  Twelve  thousand  board 
feet  of  merchantable  timber  per  acre  was  not  an  excessive  amount 
to  be  wasted  in  this  manner.  At  the  present  time  sound  stumps 
seldom  exceed  3  or  4  feet  in  height.  Coniferous  species,  like 
western  larch,  often  are  so  pitchy  in  the  butt  that  from  4  to  6  feet 
must  be  left  in  the  stump  when  the  timber  is  to  be  transported 
by  water.  In  the  yellow  pine  forests  of  the  South  the  stumps 
are  cut  from  16  to  24  inches  high;  in  the  spruce  region  of  the 
Northeast  they  often  are  from  10  to  12  inches. 

The  tendency  in  all  sections  is  to  reduce  the  height  of  stumps 
on  sound  timber  to  the  lowest  point  practicable.  It  is  not  prof- 
itable to  cut  a  low  stump  on  most  species  when  the  butt  is  rot- 
ten, because  a  large  portion  of  it  may  be  trimmed  off  and  thrown 
away  during  the  process  of  manufacture.  Saws  cannot  be  kept 
as  sharp  on  very  low  stumps  as  on  those  of  medium  height  since 


108  LOGGING 

grit  dulls  the  saw,  especially  in  a  sandy  soil.  Sawyers  cutting 
very  low  stumps  cannot  cut  as  much  timber  per  day  because 
the  work  is  more  fatiguing,  consequently  the  decrease  in  the  cut 
of  a  saw  crew  due  to  low  stumps  may  reach  15  per  cent  in 
medium-sized  timber. 

The  general  rule  on  the  National  Forests  is  that  the  stumps 
shall  not  exceed  18  inches  in  height.  Lower  stumps  may  be 
required  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspectors.  The  stump  height 
on  slopes  should  be  determined  at  the  contour  line. 


LOG-MAKING 

Utilization  of  the  Tree.  —  The  bole  usually  is  the  most  valuable 
portion  of  the  tree,  however,  the  curly  stumps  of  black  walnut 
and  other  species  are  highly  esteemed  for  cabinet  work.  In 
many  localities,  rough  tops  and  limbs  are  cut  to  a  diameter 
of  from  2  to  4  inches  for  firewood,  pulpwood,  charcoal  burning 
and  destructive  distillation.  Faggots  are  not  utilized  in  this 
country. 

The  portion  of  the  bole  which  is  removed  from  the  forest  is 
influenced  by  the  location  of  the  timber  with  reference  both  to 
the  manufacturing  plant  and  to  markets.  The  lumberman  with 
accessible  timber  may  be  able  to  handle  low-grade  logs  which  an 
operator  with  a  less  favorable  location  could  not  bring  out  profit- 
ably. 

The  transportation  charge  for  carrying  lumber  to  markets 
is  also  a  powerful  factor  in  determining  the  extent  of  utilization, 
inasmuch  as  all  grades  of  a  given  species  pay  the  same  freight 
rate  and  when  the  latter  is  high,  low  grades  cannot  be  shipped 
at  a  profit.  An  interesting  example  is  that  of  the  shortleaf  and 
longleaf  pines  of  the  South.  Both  species  usually  are  sold  at  the 
same  price  f  .o.b.  at  a  given  mill,  but  since  longleaf  weighs  more  per 
thousand  feet,  in  some  cases  300  pounds  on  a  given  item,  the 
freight  charge  to  market  is  greater  and  hence  shortleaf  can  be 
shipped  to  more  distant  markets,  or  a  lower  average  grade  can 
be  manufactured  and  the  same  profits  secured  as  in  the  case  of 
longleaf. 

Crooks,  knots,  pitch,  worm  holes  and  other  defects  are  factors 
that  influence  the  amount  of  bole  taken.  The  extent  and  char- 
acter of  the  defects  that  a  log  may  contain  and  still  be  mer- 


FELLING  AND   LOG-MAKING  109 

charitable  is  governed  by  the  species  and  the  use  to  which  the 
timber  is  to  be  put.  Chestnut  lumber  containing  many  "pin- 
worm  holes,"  has  a  market  value  both  for  veneer  backing  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  tanning  extract  if  the  timber  is  otherwise 
sound.  On  the  other  hand,  oak  with  similar  defects  brings  a  low 
price  because  its  physical  properties  do  not  fit  it  for  many  pur- 
poses. Defective  logs  of  white  pine,  yellow  poplar  and  other 
woods  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  box  material  may  be 
utilized  because  the  lumber  is  cut  into  short  lengths  and  the 
unsound  portions  eliminated,  while  logs  of  yellow  pine  with 
similar  or  fewer  defects  are  frequently  valueless  for  this  purpose 
l)ecause  the  wood  is  heavy,  making  higher  freight  charges  on  the 
package,  and  southern  yellow  pine  crates,  when  placed  in  cold 
storage,  taint  dairy  products,  eggs  and  certain  other  foodstuffs. 

The  amount  of  bole  taken  depends  on  the  ultimate  use  of 
the  timber.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  cutting  white  oak  for 
rived  stave  bolts  which  are  split  along  the  line  of  the  medullary 
rays.  Since  the  timber  must  be  straight-grained  and  free  from 
knots,  only  the  choicest  cuts  are  taken  and  a  large  part  of  the 
bole  often  is  left  in  the  forest. 

Market  conditions  are  a  potent  factor  in  regulating  the  mini- 
mum size  and  character  of  timber  that  can  be  handled  profitably. 
High-grade  logs  produce  a  sufficient  percentage  of  low-grade 
lumber  to  supply  a  dull  market,  while  a  brisk  demand  enables 
the  logger  to  bring  out  a  large  per  cent  of  his  inferior  material 
because  it  can  be  sold  for  enough  to  cover  the  cost  of  manufac- 
ture and  yield  a  small  profit.  Close  utilization  will  not  be  general 
until  the  public  is  prepared  to  pay  higher  prices  for  lumber. 

Log  Lengths.  —  Builders  consider  even  lengths  of  from  10  to  24 
feet  most  advantageous  and  these  have  come  to  be  recognized  in 
lumber  markets  as  standard.  Mills  handling  small-  and  medium- 
sized  timber  which  is  skidded  by  animals,  cut  their  logs  into 
the  above  lengths  in  the  forest,  while  those  manufacturing  long 
timbers  or  using  power  skidding  machines  either  bring  in  logs 
var3dng  from  24  to  60  feet  in  length  or  the  entire  bole  to  a  top 
diameter  of  from  4  to  6  inches.  These  logs  may  be  cut  into 
shorter  lengths  at  the  railroad  or  landing  but  delivery  at  the  mill 
of  long  logs  is  considered  preferable  for  crooked  or  defective 
timber  since  the  loss  from  improper  division  of  the  boles  can  be 
reduced.     An  experienced  man  at  the  mill  can  cut  the  boles  into 


110  LOGGING 

log  lengths  more  rapidly  and  economically  with  a  power  machine 
than  can  the  biicker  in  the  woods,  and  special  orders  for  unusual 
lengths  can  filled  without  loss  of  time. 

Logs  to  be  rafted  down  large  streams  should  be  cut  into  long 
lengths,  because  the  raft  can  be  built  stronger  and  cheaper. 

The  transportation  of  long  logs  out  of  the  forest  is  destructive 
to  young  growth  because  their  length  requires  considerable 
swamping  for  animal  transportation,  and  when  a  ground  system 
of  power  skidding  is  used  a  large  amount  of  young  growth  is 
broken  or  bruised  before  the  log  reaches  the  run  down  which  it 
passes  to  the  machine. 

The  ''board"  mills  in  the  yellow  pine  region  cut  logs  into 
standard  lengths  a  large  percentage  being  12,  14  and  16  feet. 
The  "timber"  mills  cut  longer  logs  to  meet  their  special  re- 
quirements. 

Cypress  operators  who  railroad  their  timber  to  the  mill  cut 
logs  into  standard  lengths  between  10  and  20  feet.  On  pull- 
boat  operations  where  logs  are  floated  to  the  mill  the  whole  trunk 
or  30-  to  50-foot  logs  are  skidded. 

Hardwood  logs  rafted  down  the  Ohio  river  and  other  large 
streams  are  cut  into  lengths  of  from  40  to  60  feet,  while  on  small 
streams  and  on  railroad  operations  standard-length  logs  are  the 
rule. 

In  the  Adirondack  mountains  spruce  logs  which  are  to  be 
manufactured  into  lumber  are  cut  chiefly  into  lengths  of  10,  12, 
13,  14  and  16  feet,  and  those  for  pulp  manufacture  into  even  lengths 
of  14  feet  or  more.  In  JVIaine  spruce  is  cut  either  into  standard 
lengths,  or  the  butt  cut  is  made  from  30  to  40  feet  long  and  the 
remainder  left  in  a  top  log  which  is  taken  to  a  diameter  of  4  or 
5  inches. 

White  pine  is  largely  cut  into  standard  lengths. 

Douglas  fir  on  the  Pacific  Coast  is  cut  into  logs  ranging  in 
length  from  26  to  60  feet  and  sometimes  longer.  The  customary 
lengths  range  up  to  40  feet  with  a  high  percentage  of  32-foot  logs. 

In  the  redwood  region  about  one-fourth  of  the  logs  are  cut 
16  feet  long.  The  remainder  are  cut  into  lengths  of  18,  20,  24, 
32  and  40  feet.  The  longer  lengths  are  cut  from  the  smaller 
trees. 

Method.  —  The  first  step  in  log-making  is  to  cut  the  limbs 
from  that  portion  of  the  bole  which  is  to  be  utilized.     This  is 


FELLING  AND   LOG-MAKING  111 

done  with  an  ax  by  a  member  of  the  saw  crew  or  by  a  special 
man  called  a  swamper,  knotter  or  limber.  The  bole  is  then 
laid  off  into  log  lengths  either  by  the  head  sawyer  or  by  the 
"chipper"  who  uses  an  8-  or  10-  foot  measuring  stick. 

In  log-making  there  are  several  problems  which  the  workmen 
must  solve  depending  on  the  position  of  the  felled  tree. 

(1)  When  the  tree  lies  flat  on  the  ground,  bucking-up  is  a 
simple  matter  as  the  sawyers  start  their  cut  on  the  lower  or  up- 
per part  of  the  bole  at  the  marked  point  and  continue  until 
the  log  is  severed  from  the  bole.  When  the  saw  begins  to  bind 
wedges  are  driven  into  the  cut  and  made  to  follow  the  saw  by 
an  occasional  blow  from  an  ax  or  maul.  Binding  often  is  over- 
come by  felling  the  tree  across  a  log. 

(2)  When  the  bole  is  supported  at  one  end,  care  must  be 
exercised  to  avoid  splitting  slabs  from  the  under  side.  This  is 
accomplished  by  making  a  cut  2  or  3  inches  deep  on  the  under 
side  of  the  bole.  In  addition  the  log  may  have  its  free  end  sup- 
ported by  a  false  work  of  logs,  or  by  a  heavy  stick  placed  in  a 
vertical  position  directly  under  it.  The  saw  cut  is  then  started 
on  the  upper  face  and  continued  until  the  log  breaks  off  from 
its  own  weight. 

(3)  When  the  bole  is  supported  at  both  ends  the  cut  is  usually 
started  on  the  under  side  and  continued  until  it  extends  one- 
half  or  two-thirds  of  the  distance  through  the  log.  A  cut  is 
then  started  on  the  upper  side  of  the  bole  and  continued  until 
the  log  is  severed.  The  bole  is  often  supported  by  heavy  sticks 
placed  in  a  vertical  position  under  both  sides  of  the  cut. 

(4)  When  the  bole  is  sprung  between  trees  or  stumps  the 
general  practice  is  to  make  a  deep  cut  on  the  concave  face  and 
then  to  saw  or  chop  on  the  outer  face.  Caution  is  required 
where  trees  are  badly  strained  because  they  may  break  with 
considerable  force  and  injure  workmen. 

In  small-  and  medium-sized  timber  it  is  generally  the  duty  of 
the  felling  crew  to  cut  the  bole  into  logs  as  soon  as  the  tree  has 
been  felled.  An  exception  to  this  occurs  where  the  bark  of 
trees  such  as  hemlock,  chestnut  oak  and  tanbark  oak  are  sought 
for  tanning  purposes.  In  this  case  the  felling  of  the  trees  and  the 
stripping  of  the  bark  are  done  by  a  crew  whose  work  may  pre- 
cede the  actual  logging  operation  by  several  weeks.  Log-mak- 
ing imder  these  circumstances  often  is  done  by  a  separate  crew. 


112  LOGGING 

Log-making  in  the  large  timber  of  the  Pacific  Coast  has  been 
developed  along  special  lines.  The  large  size  of  the  timber 
prevents  the  use  of  a  two-man  crew  unless  a  scaffold  is  constructed 
on  which  the  men  can  stand.  This  is  not  necessary  because  one 
man  with  a  7-  to  9-foot  single-handled  saw  can  cut  logs  to  ad- 
vantage by  standing  on  the  ground.  He  starts  his  cut  with  the 
saw  at  an  angle  and  gradually  brings  it  towards  the  horizontal 
as  it  nears  the  bottom  of  the  log.  Thick-barked  timber  requires 
special  preparation  before  bucking-up  because  the  bark  is  a  great 
hindrance  to  the  bucker.  The  practice  in  redwood  forests  is  to 
remove  the  bark  from  the  log  and  when  the  refuse  is  dry  to  burn 
over  the  area.  Bucking-up  is  then  carried  on  by  one  man  as 
described.  The  bark  on  Douglas  fir  logs  tends  to  dull  the  saw 
and  is  removed  along  the  line  of  the  saw  cut. 

Wedges  are  used  to  keep  the  saw  from  binding  and  kerosene 
is  applied  to  the  saw  blade  when  necessary  to  free  it  from  pitch. 

The  equipment  used  for  felling  and  log-making  in  small-  to 
medium-sized  timber  consists  of  a  cross-cut  saw  from  5^  to  6^  feet 
long  with  two  detachable  handles;  a  double-bitted  or  single-bitted 
ax;  two  or  more  wooden  or  iron  wedges;  a  measuring  stick;  a 
bottle  of  kerosene;  and  possibly  a  wooden  maul  or  a  sledge  for 
driving  wedges. 

Similar  equipment  is  used  for  large  timber  but  the  saws  range 
in  length  from  8  to  18  feet.  Spring  boards  also  are  required 
where  high  stumps  are  cut. 

Power  Bucking.  —  In  the  sugar  pine  forests  of  California,  hand 
bucking  is  sometimes  supplemented  by  the  use  of  the  power- 
driven  steam  dago.^  The  engine  is  moved  under  its  own  power 
to  the  vicinity  of  felled  trees  which  are  to  be  cut  into  logs.  A 
saw  frame  and  saw  are  adjusted  at  the  cutting  point  on  the  bole, 
the  saw  is  then  started  and  left  to  work  automatically  while  two 
other  frames  are  being  adjusted  at  other  cuts.  Saws  are  run  at 
about  150  strokes  per  minute. 

A  swamping  crew  precedes  the  saw  crew  and  trims  the  felled 
trees,  throwing  the  brush  to  one  side  to  give  room  for  the  ma- 
chines. There  is  a  decided  economy  both  of  time  and  labor  in 
the  use  of  the  compressed-air  machine.  Nine  men  are  required 
to  operate  it  and  the  daily  capacity  is  from  125,000  to  140,000 
board  feet,  with  a  maximum  output  under  favorable  circum- 
1  See  page  90. 


FELLING  AND  LOG-MAKING  113 

stances  of  160,000  feet.  From  fifteen  to  seventeen  men  would 
be  required  to  secure  the  same  output  with  hand  labor,  and  the 
labor  charge  would  considerably  exceed  the  cost  of  operation  and 
maintenance  of  the  machine.  Some  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
operating  during  cold  weather  because  the  moisture  freezes  on 
the  cylinder  and  piston  and  interferes  with  the  action  of  the 
latter. 

An  endless  chain  saw  is  used  to  cut  logs  into  shingle-bolt  lengths 
in  the  redwood  forest  region  and  also  to  cross-cut  logs  at  the  mill. 
It  is  especially  adapted  for  the  former  work,  where  very  large 
timber  is  to  be  cut  into  short  lengths,  because  several  cuts  can 
be  made  at  each  set-up  of  the  machine. 


WASTE    IN    LOG^MAKING^  "^ 

Inefficient  saw  crews  under  improper  supervision  often  cause 
a  waste  of  timber  by  careless  selection  of  log  lengths. 

Crook  or  Sweep.  —  Waste  nearly  always  occurs  in  the  division  of 
a  bole  having  crook  or  sweep.  It  is  more  serious  in  small  than  in 
large  timber  because  the  percentage  of  loss  in  slabbing  at  the  mill  is 
much  greater.  Pronounced  sweeps  should  be  cut  from  the  bole 
and  left  in  the  woods  and  when  it  is  not  deep  it  should  be  left 
on  the  end  of  the  log  where  there  will  be  the  minimum  loss  in 
manufacture.  Logs  with  crook  or  sweep  are  more  expensive 
to  handle  both  in  the  forest  and  at  the  mill  than  straight  logs  of 
the  same  diameter  and  length  because  more  time  is  required  to 
skid,  to  load  on  to  the  log  cars  and  to  handle  them  in  the  mill. 
The  actual  yield  of  lumber  is  from  12  to  75  per  cent  less  depending 
upon  the  per  cent  relation  between  the  depth  of  sweep  or  crook 
and  the  diameter  of  the  log.^ 

Forked  Trees.  —  Another  source  of  waste  is  the  cutting  up  of 
forked  trees.     The  chief  faults  of  the  sawyers  in  this  regard  are: 

(1)  Felling  the  tree  so  that  the  lower  fork  is  either  imbedded 
in  the  ground  or  so  placed  that  it  is  difficult  to  saw  it  properly. 
The  line  of  least  resistance  is  followed  and  the  lower  fork  is  left 
or  a  portion  of  it  sacrificed.     (Fig.  22.) 

*  See  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine,  by  H.  H.  Chapman  and  R.  C. 
Bryant.     Yale  University  Press,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1913. 

-  See  Forest  Mensuration,  by  H.  H.  Chapman.  John  Wiley  and  Sons, 
Inc.,  New  York,  1921. 


114 


LOGGING 


(2)  Cutting  too  far  below  the  fork,  thereby  wasting  mer- 
chantable material. 

(3)  Cutting  too  far  above  the  crotch  as  shown  in  Fig.  22. 
The  bole  should  have  been  cut  close  up  on  both  sides  of  the  crotch 
and  the  short  section  left  in  the  woods. 

It  is  unprofitable  to  bring  logs  with  large  forks  to  a  mill  because 
the  yield  of  lumber  from  them  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  cost 


ilMI^"' 


Fig.  22.  —  A  Forked  Tree  cut  in  a  Wasteful  Manner. 


of  production.  Forked  logs  require  from  two  to  fifteen  times 
longer  to  get  into  the  mill  and  to  be  sawed  into  lumber  than  do 
straight  logs  of  the  same  diameter  and  length  and  the  yield  from 
them  is  often  from  20  to  50  per  cent  less.  A  further  loss  is  oc- 
casioned by  the  reduction  of  the  mill  output  because  of  the  ad- 
ditional time  spent  on  sawing  such  logs. 

hnproper  Trimming  Lengths.  —  Insufficient  attention  is  given 
to  the  lengths  into  which  logs  are  cut.  They  should  be  a  few 
inches  longer  than  the  implied  log  lengths  because  in  bucking 
large  logs  it  may  be  impracticable  for  the  sawyers  to  cut  exactly 
at  right  angles  to  the  length  and,  further,  logs  often  are  damaged 
on  the  ends  in  skidding  and  in  transit  to  the  mill.  This  extra 
length  is  trimmed  off  in  the  mill  and  gives  a  straight,  bright  end 
on  each  board.     Three  inches   are  regarded   as  sufficient  for  a 


FELLING  AND   LOG-MAKING  115 

log  16  inches  and  under  in  diameter  and  4  inches  for  those  of 
greater  diameter. 

Workmen  become  careless  and  often  do  not  cut  50  per  cent  of 
the  logs  the  proper  length.  Where  less  than  2  inches  are  left 
for  trimming  length,  the  board  is  usually  reduced  2  feet  in  length 
at  the  mill,  while  on  those  that  are  several  inches  too  long  the 
loss  is  also  great.  Inaccuracy  in  measurements  is  due  to  careless 
measurement  with  the  stick  and  to  the  use  of  one  shortened  by 
accidentally  clipping  off  the  end  with  the  marker's  ax. 

The  result  of  measuring  1000  logs  on  the  skidway  of  a  southern 
yellow  pine  operation  showed  that  only  426  logs  were  of  the 
proper  length,  while  240  were  too  short  and  333  were  from  1 
to  11  inches  too  long.  The  excess  on  the  ends  of  several  logs 
was  often  sufficient  to  have  secured  an  additional  2  feet  of  mer- 
chantable material  had  the  bole  been  carefully  divided. 

Disregard  of  Quality.  —  Log-makers  frequently  do  not  give 
sufficient  attention  to  securing  quality  as  well  as  quantity.  Where 
timber  has  large  limbs  the  general  practice  is  to  leave  the  greater 
part  of  the  tops  in  the  woods  because  lumber  of  low  grade  only 
can  be  secured  from  them.  Log-makers  frequently  exercise  poor 
judgment  in  cutting  trees  into  logs  and  often  fail  to  apportion 
the  bole  so  that  the  best  portion  and  the  knotty  portion  are 
kept  in  separate  logs.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  from  6  to  10 
feet  of  clear  bole  put  into  a  log  with  several  linear  feet  of  knotty 
material.  This  policy  is  costly  because  the  value  of  the  log  is 
chiefly  determined  by  its  poorest  section.  The  universal  rule 
should  be  to  divide  the  bole  so  that  the  clear  material  will  be 
kept  separate  from  the  rough  and  defective.  It  may  often  prove 
more  profitable  to  waste  a  few  feet  of  rough  log  if  by  so  doing  the 
amount  of  high-grade  lumber  can  be  increased. 

Waste.  —  One  form  of  waste  commonly  observed  is  shown 
in  Fig.  23.  Log-makers  seldom  go  above  points  where  one  or 
more  large  limbs  project  out  on  one  side  (see  X).  If  the  log  is 
15  or  more  inches  in  diameter  and  one  side  is  free  from  knots, 
the  cut  should  be  extended  2  or  4  feet  further  up  the  tree,  say  to 
"Y",  if  that  distance  gives  the  proper  log  length.  The  lower 
side  will  yield  clear  lumber  free  from  knots  and  cannot  in  any 
way  depreciate  the  value  of  the  log  content,  while  the  lumber- 
man secures  the  additional  material  on  the  good  half  of  the  log 
which   otherwise   would  be   wasted.     If  necessary,   the   portion 


116  LOGGING 

containing  the  large  knots  can  be  cut  off  in  the  mill  at  the 
trimmer. 

A  loss  usually  occurs  in  cutting  broken  timber  into  logs  by 
making  the  saw-cut  too  far  below  the  break.  Where  the  break 
is  not  square  across  it  is  often  possible  to  obtain  added  material 
by  cutting  the  log  so  as  to  include  a  portion  of  the  broken  end. 
This  should  alwaj^s  be  done  on  large  timber  where  the  extra 
section  that  can  be  secured  is  at  least  equal  to  one-half  the  diam- 
eter of  the  log. 

One  of  the  most  extensive  wastes  occurs  in  the  tops  when  all 
of  the  merchantable  material  below  the  larger  limbs  has  not  been 


Fig.  23.  —  Waste  iii  a  Top  resulting  from  an  Improper  Selection  of  Log 
Lengths. 

utilized.  Sections  of  good  timber  from  one  to  several  feet  in 
length  and  of  a  quality  equal  to  that  taken  are  often  left,  because 
the  log-makers  did  not  exercise  judgment  in  dividing  the  bole 
into  the"  most  economical  log  lengths.  The  loss  from  this  source 
often  runs  from  3.5  to  5  per  cent  of  the  total  merchantable  stand 
and  the  annual  loss  on  large  operations  amounts  to  thousands 
of  dollars,  although  it  could  be  corrected  by  proper  supervision. 
Close  utilization  of  the  kind  mentioned  does  not  require  the 
operator  to  take  material  that  he  does  not  consider  merchant- 
able. A  system  by  which  timber  is  cut  for  quality  as  well  as 
quantity  means  an  increase  in  the  percentage  of  the  higher  grades, 
more  timber  per  acre  and  prolonged  life  to  the  operation. 

BARKING    OR    ROSSING 

When  logs  of  large  size  are  skidded  on  dry  ground,  the  bark 
on  the  lower  side  is  frequently  removed  to  reduce  friction.  This 
is  termed  "barking"  or  "rossing."  During  a  wet  season  or 
when  power  is  used  for  skidding  rossing  frequently  is  omitted. 

In  the  Northeast  the  ends  of  long  logs  that  are  being  yarded 
on  drag  sleds  are  sometimes  rossed  on  the  under  side  when  the 
road  is  either  level  or  upgrade,  or  the  dragging  hard. 


FELLING  AND   LOG-MAKING  117 

In  other  sections  of  the  country  only  the  largest  logs  are  rossed. 
The  work  is  generally  done  with  an  ax  by  a  member  of 
the  swamping  crew.  On  heavy  timber  the  barker  not  only 
removes  the  bark  but  also  straightens  slight  crooks  by  cutting 
off  sufficient  wood  to  flatten  the  log  so  that  when  dragged,  it 
will  remain  in  proper  position. 

Spruce  logs  intended  for  pulp  manufacture  are  sometimes 
peeled  in  the  forest  because  there  is  less  wood  wasted  than  when 
the  work  is  done  by  machinery  at  the  mill  and  the  shipping  weight 
is  reduced  by  this  means. 

Redwood  logs  are  rossed  in  the  forest  before  the  boles  are  made 
into  logs  because  the  thickness  of  the  bark  and  its  rough  character 
not  only  impede  log-making  but  are  also  a  hindrance  in  trans- 
portation. 


Previous  to  skidding,  the  forward  end  of  a  large  log  may  be 
"sniped"  or  "nosed"  that  is,  rounded  off  on  the  under  side 
so  that  it  will  not  catch  on  obstructions.  Where  the  ground 
is  rough  and  the  log  is  likely  to  roll  over,  the  entire  front  end 
is  sniped.  This  work  may  be  done  by  a  sniper  or  by  one  of  the 
swampers.  The  sniper  generally  prefers  an  ax  with  a  5-  or 
6-pound  head. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE  TO   CHAPTER  VI 

Braniff,  Edward  A.:   Grades  and  Amounts  of  Lumber  Sawed  from  Yellow 

Poplar,  Yellow  Birch,  Sugar  Maple  and  Beech.     Bui.  No.  73,  U.  S.  For. 

Ser.,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1906,  pp.  20-2L 
Bruce,  Donald:   The  Relative  Cost  of  Making  Logs  from  Small  and  Large 

Timber.  Coll.  of  Agriculture,  Agricultural  Ex.  Sta.,  Bui.  339,  Berkeley, 

Cal.,  Jan.  1922. 
Gary,  Austin:    Practical  Forestry  on  a  Spruce  Tract  in  Maine.     Cir.  131, 

U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
Chapman,  H.  H.,  and  Bryant,  R.  C.  :  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine. 

Yale  University  Press,  Bui.  2,  Yale  Forest  School,  New  Haven,  Conn., 

1913. 
Clapp,  Earle  H. :  Conservative  Logging.     Report  of  the  National  Conserva- 
tion Commission  with  accompanying  papers,  1909,  pp.  512-546. 
Girard,  James  W.:    Inland  Empire  Sawing  and  Skidding  Studies.     The 

Timberman,  Sept.,  1920,  pp.  36-38. 
Graves,  Henry  S.:    Practical  Forestry  in  the  Adirondacks.     Bui.  No.  26, 

U.  S.  Div.  of  For.,  Washington,  D.  C,  1899,  pp.  57-60. 
Hedgecock,  George  Grant:  Studies  upon  some  Chromogenic  Fungi  which 


118  LOGGING 

discolor  Wood.     Missouri  Botanical  Garden,  Seventeenth  Annual  Report, 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1906,  pp.  59-114. 
Hopkins,  A.  D.:    Practical  Information  on  the  Scolytid  Beetles  of  North 

American  Forests.     I.     Barkbeetles  of  the  Genus  Dendroctonus.     Bui. 

No.  83,  Part  I,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  1909. 
Hopkins,  A.  D.:    Insect  Injuries  to  Forest  Products.     U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture,  Yearbook,  1904,  pp.  381-398. 
Hopkins,  A.  D.  :   Pinhole  Injury  to  Girdled  Cypress  in  the  South  Atlantic 

and  Gulf  States.     Cir.  82,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  1907. 
Peters,  J.  Girvin:  Waste  in  Logging  Southern  Yellow  Pine.     Yearbook  of 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905,  pp.  483-494. 
Von  Schrenk,  Hermann:  The  Bluing  and  Red  Rot  of  the  Western  Yellow 

Pine  with  special  reference  to  the  Black  Hills  Forest  Reserve.     Bui.  No.  36; 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1903. 


PART  III 
LAND  TRANSPORT 


CHAPTER  VII 
TRANSPORTATION 

Transportation  represents  a  large  per  cent  of  the  total  cost 
of  delivering  raw  wood  material  at  the  mill  or  market,'  hence 
it  is  the  loggers'  most  important  problem  and  the  success  or 
failure  of  the  operation  usually  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  solved.  Differences  in  wages  or  efficiency  of  labor,  character 
and  size  of  timber  (hardwoods  or  softwoods),  the  physical  con- 
ditions under  which  the  work  is  done  and  the  topography  of  the 
region  may  cause  some  variation  in  log-making  costs,  yet  on  effi- 
cient operations  the  difference  between  the  highest  and  lowest 
costs  is  relatively  small.  On  the  other  hand,  transportation 
expenditures  in  a  given  region  may  vary  within  wide  limits 
because  of  the  different  topographic  conditions  under  which 
the  work  is  carried  on  and  also  because  of  inefficiency  on  the  part  of 
the  management,  due  to  the  choice  of  unsuitable  methods  or  im- 
proper application  of  suitable  ones. 

The  correct  solution  of  the  transportation  problems  of  the  log- 
ging industry  calls  for  great  resourcefulness  on  the  part  of  the 
logger  and  is  made  more  difficult  because  of  the  pioneer  conditions 
under  which  the  work  must  be  done.  The  tonnage  may  comprise 
logs  or  other  products  cut  from  trees  ranging  from  small  second- 
growth  timber  a  few  inches  in  diameter  and  yielding  units 
weighing  but  a  fraction  of  a  ton  to  massive  trees  such  as  the 
Douglas  fir  and  the  redwood  of  the  West  Coast,  single  log  units 
of  which  may  weigh  many  tons;  the  topography  may  vary  from 
a  flat,  swampy  condition  to  a  rugged  mountainous  one  in  which 
deep  canyons  and  steep  slopes  are  encountered;  and  the  climatic 
conditions  may  range  from  the  mild  climate  of  the  southern 
part  of  this  country  to  that  of  the  northern  and  eastern  part  of 

•  The  transportation  of  forest  products  to  mill  or  market  represents  75 
per  cent  or  more  of  the  total  delivered  cost  of  raw  material,  exclusive  of  the 
stumpage  value. 

121 


122  LOGGING 

the  United  States  where  the  winters  are  long  and  cold  and  are 
accompanied  by  a  heavy  fall  of  snow. 

The  conditions  under  which  logging  is  carried  on  vary  so  widely 
in  the  different  forest  regions  of  the  country  that  loggers  must 
specialize  in  the  practice  applicable  to  a  given  region.  In  the 
Northeast,  he  must  be  an  expert  on  stream  improvements  and 
on  sled  transportation;  in  the  South  he  must  be  familiar  with  the 
methods  of  moving  medium-sized  timber  on  swampy,  flat,  and 
rolling  lands,  and  understand  the  use  of  power  skidding  machin- 
ery, and  steam  railroads;  while  in  the  Far  West  he  must  move 
heavy  log  units  often  under  unfavorable  topographic  conditions. 

The  logger  utilizes  in  his  work  almost  every  form  of  equipment 
which  has  been  devised  for  moving  materials  among  which  are 
sleds,  carts,  wagons,  railroads^  aerial  trams,  slides,  flumes,  steam 
and  electric  skidders,  tractors,  power  log  loaders,  steam  and  gaso- 
line tugs,  barges,  and  power  log  haulers. 

There  is  no  uniformity  in  the  procedure  followed  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  transportation  methods  on  logging  operations.  Many 
operators  have  not  prepared  a  detailed  preliminary  plan  of  operation 
for  their  tract  in  advance  of  logging.  The  general  methods  in  use 
in  the  region  have  been  adopted  as  the  standard  and  modified 
as  conditions  made  such  a  step  necessary.  The  applications 
of  these  methods  to  field  conditions  was  left  to  the  logging  superin- 
tendent or  foreman  whose  engineering  ability  was  based  chiefly 
on  practical  experience.  This  method  proved  satisfactory  when 
a  high  degree  of  technical  knowledge  was  not  needed.  The 
depletion  of  the  accessible  timber  stands  on  favorable  topography 
has  forced  loggers  into  regions,  distant  from  markets,  where  the 
development  of  transportation  requires  a  degree  of  engineering 
skill  not  possessed  by  the  average  foreman.  It  also  has  made 
it  necessary  to  plan  the  operations  for  some  years  in  advance  in 
order  that  costly  improvements  may  be  located  so  that  they  will 
serve  to  bring  out  the  maximum  amount  of  timber.  The  greatest 
advance  along  these  lines  has  been  made- in  the  Appalachian  moun- 
tain region  in  which  some  of  the  largest  operations  are  being  car- 
ried on  in  a  very  mountainous  section,  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
where  massive  machinery  is  required  for  skidding  and  expensive 
railroad  construction  is  necessary  to  move  the  heavy  timber. 
A  new  branch  of  the  engineering  prQfession  has  grown  up  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  logger  in  these  regions,  especially  in  the 


TRANSPORTATION  123 

West,  namely,  logging  engineering  which  calls  into  play  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  civil,  mechanical  and  electrical  phases  of  the  profes- 
sion especially  adapted  to  the  loggers'  needs. 

Transportation  on  a  logging  operation  may  be  classified  under 
two  main  heads,  namely,  secondary  or  short-distance,  and  pri- 
mary or  long-distance. 

Secondary  transportation.  —  This  is  used  to  bring  the  raw  ma- 
terial from  the  stump  to  some  central  point  or  points  from  which 
it  is  taken  by  the  primary  transportation  to  the  mill  or  market. 
It  varies  widely  in  character  and  the  work  may  be  done  solely 
by  manual  labor,  although  animal  draft  or  mechanical  power 
is  most  frequently  used.  In  general  the  choice  of  methods  is 
based  on  some  or  all  of  the  following  factors: 

(1)  The  size  of  the  timber,  the  stand  per  acre,  and  the  length 
of  logs  desired.  Very  large  timber  such  as  redwood  and  Douglas 
fir  can  best  be  handled  by  some  form  of  mechanical  power,  owing 
to  the  great  weight  which  must  be  moved,  hence  power  skidding 
or  yarding  machinery  is  used. 

Light  stands  of  timber,  unless  the  trees  are  of  large  size,  can  be 
logged  cheaper  by  some  form  of  animal  draft  than  by  mechanical 
power  because  the  use  of  the  latter  usually  necessitates  the  con- 
struction of  an  extensive  mileage  of  logging  railroad  spurs,  the 
unit  cost  of  which  is  excessive  when  the  stand  per  acre  is  low. 
Tractors  have  been  introduced  successfully  on  some  operations 
in  recent  years  as  a  substitute  for  animal  draft  in  logging  light 
stands.  They  have  proved  useful  on  long  hauls  and  also  on 
slopes,  especially  during  the  warm  weather  when  steep  ascending 
grades  reduce  the  efficiency  both  of  teamsters  and  animals. 

(2)  The  character  of  bottom  and  undergrowth  and  degree 
of  slope.  When  the  bottom  is  smooth  and  free  from  underbrush, 
animals  can  be  successfully  used  for  moving  smal^  to  medium-sized 
timber,  but  animals  are  not  satisfactory  when  the  bottom  is 
swampy  or  there  is  a  heavy  undergrowth  present,  because  in 
the  first  case  the  animals  mire  badly,  and  in  the  second  case 
an  excessive  amount  of  swamping  is  necessary  in  making  trails 
and  roads.  Slopes  in  excess  of  30  degrees  are  hard  to  log  with 
animals  because  of  the  difficulty  of  controlling  logs  as  they  are 
yarded  to  the  lower  levels,  and  also  due  to  the  great  exertion  re- 
quired on  the  part  of  the  animal  when  it  ascends  the  slopes  on  the 
return  journey.  Power  skidding  is  more  satisfactory  under  such 
conditions. 


124  LOGGING 

(3)  The  distance.  Animal  draft  is  used  both  for  short  and 
for  long  distances.  The  efficiency  of  this  form  of  draft  decreases 
rapidly  with  the  distance  hauled  on  level  ground  and  on  large 
operations  it  is  seldom  profitable  to  skid  or  yard  logs  for  distances 
greater  than  from  600  to  800  feet.  However,  logs  from  scattered 
bodies  of  timber  or  light  stands  may  be  hauled  for  much  greater 
distances  on  some  form  of  wheeled  vehicle  when  the  volume  of  tim- 
ber is  so  small  that  it  is  not  profitable  to  bring  the  main  transpor- 
tation within  a  few  hundred  feet  of  it.  In  a  rolling  region,  the 
profitable  skidding  or  hauling  distance  for  animals  may  be  much 
increased  because  of  the  greater  volume  of  timber  which  can  be 
moved  down  grade  at  one  time.  In  such  cases  logs  may  be 
dragged  for  distances  of  3/4  or  1  mile. 

Ground  power  skidding  methods  are  rarely  adapted  to  distances 
greater  than  from  GOO  to  1000  feet,  and  overhead  systems  from 
800  to  1500  feet.  However,  in  very  rough  regions  the  latter 
type  of  equipment  has  been  used  for  distances  as  great  as  from 
3500  to  4500  feet.  The  choice  between  the  two  methods  is  based 
largely  on  the  volume  of  timber  to  be  moved,  the  size  of  the  units 
to  be  handled,  the  character  of  bottom  over  which  the  timber 
must  be  carried,  and  the  form  of  primary  transportation  available 
both  for  moving  logs  and  skidding  equipment. 

(4)  The  form  of  primary  transportation.  Animal  draft  may 
be  used  with  rail,  motor  truck  or  water  transport  but,  in  general, 
only  two  forms  of  power  equipment  have  proved  satisfactory  when 
railroads  are  not  available,  namely,  pullboat  logging  in  cypress 
and  tractor  logging.^  Logs  skidded  by  pullboats  are  floated  to 
destination  while  those  logged  by  tractor  may  be  floated  or  else 
hauled  on  motor  trucks.  The  latter  practice  is  followed  in  tractor 
logging  only  on  relatively  small  operations. 

(5)  The  annual  or  seasonal  output.  Some  form  of  animal- 
draft  is  always  used  when  the  annual  or  seasonal  output  is  small, 
because  the  investment  in  logging  equipment  is  less  and  the  ani- 
mals may  be  diverted  to  other  work  when  logging  is  not  in  prog- 
ress. Power  skidding  machinery  represents  a  large  initial  in- 
vestment and  the  capacity  of  such  machines  is  too  great  for  small 
operations.     Few    power    skidding    machines    can    be    operated 

1  In  some  cases  in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  power  skidding  is  used  without 
rail  transportation,  the  logs  being  dragged  to  water  transportation  by  road 
engines. 


TRANSPORTATION  125 

profitably  on  a  daily  output  which  is  less  than  30,000  board  feet  . 
per  unit  and  some  have  an  average  daily  capacity  of  100,000  board 
feet  or  more.     Hence,  the  daily  output  far  exceeds  the  require- 
ments of  small  mills,  and  during  idle  periods  the  carrying  charges        y 
on  the  machineiy  are  excessive.  i  -^ 

(G)  The  forestry  policy  to  be  pursued.  Power  logging  has 
been  extensively  introduced  on  large  operations  in  many  parts 
of  the  country,  especially  in  the  southern  yellow  pine,  the  Ap- 
palachian mountain,  the  Central  Hardwood  (chiefly  in  the  Missis^ 
sippi  Valley  section),  the  Inland  Empire,  California,  and  the  Pacif- 
ic Northwest  regions.  It  has  not  gained  any  appreciable  foot- 
hold in  the  Northeast  and  in  the  Lake  States  where  there  is  a 
long  winter  season  with  a  relatively  heavy  snowfall.  The  ten- 
dency in  power  logging  in  recent  years  has  been  to  increase  the 
amount  of  power  in  individual  machines  and  the  speed  of  the  skid- 
ding lines  in  order  to  increase  the  output  per  unit  and  thus  keep 
down  the  costs  of  logging  which  have  a  more  or  less  constant 
tendency  to  rise  with  the  advance  in  the  cost  of  labor  and  supplies. 
All  forms  of  power  logging  are  more  destructive  to  reproduction 
and  seed  trees  than  animal  logging,  and  the  ratio  of  destruction 
increases  rapidly  with  the  increase  in  the  speed  of  the  skidding 
lines.  It  is  doubtful  if  skidding-line  speeds  in  excess  of  600  feet 
per  minute  are  compatible  with  any  form  of  forest  management 
other  than  clear  cutting.  The  so-called  high-lead  system  used 
(ihiefly  in  the  West  has  proved  to  be  the  most  destructive  because 
of  the  damage  not  only  to  the  base  but  also  to  the  tops  of  trees 
which  may  be  left  in  the  forest.  The  extent  of  damage  by  any 
system  of  power  logging  is  directly  proportional  to  the  area  covered 
by  the  runs  since,  on  such  areas,  all  volunteer  growth  and  seed 
trees  are  destroyed. 

All  forms  of  animal  logging  have  proved  to  be  less  destructive 
than  power  logging  because  the  chief  damage  results  onl}^  to  those 
trees  which  are  cut  to  make  roads  or  trails  over  which  to  move 
the  logs,  and  to  the  seedling  growth  which  is  on  the  right  of  way. 
Since  swamping  must  be  done  by  manual  labor,  the  amount  of 
timber  cut  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Although  an  occasional 
seed  tree  may  be  scarred  by  contact  with  the  wheels  of  skidding 
or  hauling  equipment,  this  damage  usually  is  slight  and  the  tree 
readily  recovers.  The  damage  to  seedlings  and  saplings  along 
the  trails  and  roads  often  is  more  or  less  complete  but  such  areas 


126  LOGGING 

are  less  in  extent  than  the  runs  for  power  logging  and,  therefore, 
the  total  damage  is  reduced.  Forest  policj^,  therefore,  has  an 
influence  on  the  choice  of  secondary  transportation  on  areas  where 
a  sustained  yield  is  sought.^ 

Primary  Transportation.  —  This  includes  the  movement  of  the 
products  from  some  central  point  or  points  in  the  forest  to  mill 
or  market  and  represents  one  of  the  major  costs  incident  to  logging. 
Primary  transportation  may  be  on  land  or  water  or  both,  since 
forest  products  often  are  hauled  for  considerable  distances  on 
land  and  then  floated  or  rafted  to  destination  or  to  some  point 
where  they  are  again  taken  out  of  the  water  and  moved  on  land 
to  the  mill  or  to  market.  Among  the  factors  governing  the  choice 
of  primary  transportation  are  the  following : 

(1)  The  topography.  Wheeled  transport  is  not  adapted  to 
regions  where  the  topography  is  very  rough  because  steep  adverse 
grades  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  size  of  loads  which  can  be  hauled 
and  the  cost  of  constructing  a  roadbed  is  high.  In  such  cases 
flumes,  aerial  trams  and  slides  may  be  used.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  flat  or  rolling  country  with  a  solid  bottom  is  well  adapted  to 
the  use  of  some  form  of  wheeled  transport.  A  region  with  many 
streams  and  ample  water  storage  reservoir  sites  is  adapted  to 
water  transport  while  the  reverse  may  be  true  of  a  flat  or  gently 
rolling  country  because  of  the  sluggish  character  of  the  streams 
and  the  high  cost  of  stream  improvements  necessary  to  confine 
logs  to  the  channels  at  flood  stage.  Rough  regions  also  are  chiefly 
non-agricultural  in  character  and  a  greater  mileage  of  railroad 
usually  must  be  constructed  to  tap  outside  existing  transport 
systems  than  is  necessary  in  flat  or  rolling  regions  which  often 
are  more  densely  populated  and,  therefore,  have  better  existing 
transportation  facilities. 

(2)  Climate.  Temperature  and  precipitation  often  have  a 
marked  bearing  on  the  form  of  transportation  chosen.  Heavy 
snowfall  and  low  temperatures  during  the  winter  months  are  found 
in  some  regions  where  conifers  are  the  more  common  forest  trees. 
Such  areas  usually  are  well  watered  with  streams  of  a  size  suitable 
for  floating  logs.  Also  in  such  forest  regions  rail  transportation 
is  seldom  well  developed  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  move  forest 

1  The  Forest  Service  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  already  has  placed 
certain  restrictions  on  power  logging  on  some  of  the  National  Forests  in  the 
West. 


TRANSPORTATION  127 

products  many  miles  to  reach  a  suitable  point  for  manufacture. 
Sled  transportation  to  a  stream  down  which  the  logs  are  floated 
is  common  in  such  regions,  provided  the  temperature  conditions 
are  such  that  a  snow  or  ice  bottom  can  be  relied  upon  for  a  period  of 
from  seventy  to  eighty  days.  This  is  the  case  in  many  parts  of  the 
Northeastern  spruce  region  and  in  many  parts  of  the  Lake  States. 
In  the  Inland  Empire  the  amount  of  snowfall  is  adequate  for  sled- 
hauling  but  temperature  conditions  are  so  unstable  that  the  logger 
cannot  rely  upon  a  continuous  period  of  cold  weather  of  suflicient 
length  to  enable  him  to  place  his  logs  on  the  landing.  As  a 
consequence,  sled  transportation  is  not  used  to  the  same  extent 
that  it  is  in  other  regions  of  equal  or  lesser  snowfall.  In  the  south- 
ern and  far  western  forests  some  form  of  wheeled  transport  must 
be  used  to  move  the  products  from  the  forest,  either  for  the  entire 
distance  or  to  some  body  of  water  on  which  the  logs  may  be  moved 
to  destination.  In  the  southern  pineries,  rail  transport  is  in 
common  use  because  the  timber  does  not  float  well  and  trunk-line 
railroads  can  be  reached  with  a  comparatively  short  mileage  of 
logging  railroad.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  a  large  volume  of  timber 
is  hauled  by  rail  to  tidewater  or  to  some  large  stream  and  then 
rafted  and  towed  to  the  mills.  The  timber  floats  better  than 
southern  pine,  but  its  large  size  and  the  long  lengths  in  which  it 
is  cut  in  the  forest  make  it  impracticable  to  float  the  timber  down 
the  relatively  small,  short  streams  which  drain  the  territory 
between  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  the  sea. 

(3)  Size,  character  and  length  of  logs.  Large-sized  timber 
usually  must  be  hauled  on  some  form  of  wheeled  transport,  es- 
pecially when  cut  near  the  headwaters  of  drainage  systems,  since 
the  streams  are  too  small  to  float  logs  of  large  dimensions.  Pulp- 
wood  may  be  cut  in  lengths  as  short  as  2  feet  in  order  to  move 
it  down  small  streams,  and  stave  and  shingle  bolts,  and  crossties 
often  are  floated  down  streams  that  are  too  small  for  saw  logs. 
Very  large  logs  cannot  be  moved  successfully  by  animal  power, 
hence  some  form  of  rail  or  motor  truck  transport  usually  is  em- 
ployed. 

The  weight  of  logs  may  be  the  factor  determining  the  choice 
of  land  or  water  transport.  The  heavier  hardwoods  cannot  be 
floated  successfully  for  long  distances  and  some  form  of  land  trans- 
port must  be  installed  or  the  timber  left  standing. 

The  lengths  in  which  it  is  desired  to  bring  out  logs  may  deter- 


128  LOGGING 

mine  the  choice  because  logs  in  excess  of  32  feet  in  length  usually 
can  not  be  handled  profitably  by  animal  draft.  An  exception 
may  be  noted  in  the  case  of  piles  and  other  products,  for  which 
special  facilities  must  be  provided.  Long  logs  usually  can  be 
handled  best  by  some  form  of  rail  transport  on  which  a  long 
wheel  base  may  be  used  to  support  the  load. 

(4)  Character  of  skidding  equipment.  Heavy  machinery  and 
power  logging  equipment  can  best  be  moved  by  rail  and  in  most 
parts  of  the  country  such  form  of  transport  is  used  A  logging 
railroad  also  furnishes  a  quick  and  efficient  means  of  moving  logs 
or  other  products  to  some  point  not  tributary  to  the  watershed 
on  which  the  timber  stands.  Motor  trucks  may  be  successfully 
substituted  for  a  railroad  on  small  operations  where  both  animal 
and  power  logging  equipment  is  in  use. 

When  logs  are  skidded  by  animal  power,  the  choice  of  primary 
transportation  may  be  a  logging  railroad  if  a  large  volume  of 
timber  is  to  be  moved ;  wagons  or  carts  for  a  small  volume  moved 
a  comparatively  short  distance;  sled  hauling  and  water  transport 
when  climatic  conditions  and  character  of  timber  permit;  and 
sled  hauling  with  animal  or  tractor  draft  when  water  transport 
is  not  available  or  the  logs  will  not  float. 

(5)  Size  of  operation.  Simple  inexpensive  equipment  which 
can  be  used  in  the  form  of  several  independent  units  is  the  only 
type  adapted  to  small  capacity  operations,  since  the  volume  of 
timber  to  be  moved  is  limited  and  a  heavy  expense  for  equipment 
is  not  justified.  On  the  other  hand,  operations  which  are  to 
continue  for  many  years  and  which  move  many  millions  of  board 
feet  of  timber  per  year  must  have  some  form  of  transport  on  which 
reliance  can  be  placed  for  steady  and  continuous  delivery  of  large 
quantities  of  timber  in  a  given  time.  The  initial  expense  for 
transportation  can  be  distributed  over  a  long  period  of  years 
and  the  unit  costs  kept  at  a  reasonable  figure.  It  is  necessary 
to  strike  a  balance  between  investment,  operating  charges  and 
maintenance,  because  the  logger  with  a  limited  output  cannot 
incur  heavier  transportation  costs  than  his  larger  competitors, 
if  he  is  to  be  successful.  The  success  of  any  system  of  primary 
transportation  depends  largely  upon  the  skill  displayed  in  ana- 
lyzing the  conditions  found  on  any  particular  area  and  upon  the 
efficiency  of  the  supervising  force  in  installing  and  operating 
the  chosen  system. 


t 


Jh 


CHAPTER  VIII     / 
ANIMAL  DRAFT  POWER 

For  many  years  animals  constituted  the  only  draft  power 
used  in  logging  operations  in  the  United  States.  They  are  still 
used  extensively  in  the  spruce  region  of  the  Northeast,  the  Appa- 
lachians, the  yellow  pine  forests  of  the  South,  the  Lake  States, 
the  Inland  Empire  and  portions  of  California.  In  all  of  these 
regions  machinery  has  replaced  them  for  many  purposes,  yet 
animal  logging  is  still  extensively  practiced. 

Animals  are  now  seldom  used  to  move  heavy  timber,  or  for 
swamp  logging  or  work  on  very  rough  ground  and  very  steep 
slopes.  Power-driven  machinery  has  supplanted  them  in  the 
redwood  belt  of  California,  the  fir  forests  of  the  Northwest, 
the  cypress  swamps  of  the  South  and  in  some  of  the  other  rough 
mountainous  portions  of  the  United  States. 

They  still  remain  the  favorite  form  of  draft  when  the  timber 
is  of  medium  size,  where  the  stand  per  acre  is  less  than  5000 
board  feet  and  when  topography  and  bottom  afford  a  good  footing. 

The  chief  uses  for  animals  in  logging  are  to  transport  timber 
and  other  forest  products  from  the  stump  to  a  collecting  point 
along  a  logging  railroad,  a  landing  on  some  stream  or  to  a  saw- 
mill. In  addition  they  often  supply  the  power  for  decking  logs 
on  skidways,  and  loading  logs  on  sleds,  wagons  and  log  cars. 
Even  when  machinery  is  used  for  skidding  logs,  animals  may  be 
required  to  return  the  cable  to  the  woods  and  to  haul  wood  and 
water  for  the  engines. 

Oxen.  —  Oxen  were  the  only  animals  owned  by  many  of  the 
pioneer  lumbermen,  and  even  after  horses  were  available,  loggers 
operating  in  remote  sections  found  the  ox  more  desirable  because 
it  could  live  on  coarser  feed,  stand  rougher  treatment  and  required 
an  inexpensive  harness  which  could  be  made  in  camp. 

Conditions  have  now  changed,  and  the  higher  cost  of  labor 
and  supplies  has  led  many  loggers  to  use  either  horses  or  mules 

129 


130  LOGGING 

because  they  are  more  active  than  oxen.  The  latter  are  now 
used  chiefly  in  the  hardwood  regions  of  the  Appalachians  and  in 
the  yellow  pine  region  of  the  South,  where  they  are  frequently 
supplemented  by  horses  or  mules. 

The  following  conditions  are  those  under  which  oxen  may  be 
used  to  the  best  advantage: 

(1)  On  swampy  ground,  because  they  do  not  mire  as  badly 
as  the  smaller-footed  horse  or  mule. 

(2)  For  skidding  on  brushy  ground,  as  they  require  little 
swamping. 

(3)  On  slopes,  especially  if  the  ground  is  rough  and  the  under- 
brush abundant,  because  they  are  not  excitable  in  difficult  situ- 
ations. 

One  advantage  is  that  eight  or  ten  animals  can  be  handled 
by  one  teamster,  while  only  four  of  five  horses  or  mules  can  be 
worked  by  one  man.  Oxen  stand  heavy  pulling  day  after  day. 
better  than  other  draft  animals  and  also  require  a  minimum  of 
attention  because  only  one  feed  per  day  is  necessary  if  the  animals 
are  turned  out  to  graze  at  night. 

They  are  slow  on  short  hauls  but  they  can  be  loaded  more 
heavily  and  thus  partially  offset  the  greater  speed  of  horses  and 
mules,  although  they  are  not  as  serviceable  as  mules  on  hot, 
dusty  roads  because  they  suffer  from  continual  exposure  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  on  very  warm  days,  may  be  easily 
killed  by  over-exertion  due  to  careless  driving.  They  can  be 
used  in  cold  regions  without  danger.  Under  average  conditions 
an  ox  will  travel  about  1  mile  per  hour  when  pulling  a  load. 

Oxen  are  harnessed  with  a  yoke.  The  driver  controls  them  by 
the  voice  and  by  a  heavy  rawhide  whip.  They  are  worked  in 
teams  of  from  three  to  five  yoke.  In  a  team  of  five  yoke,  the 
front  pair  are  called  "leaders,"  the  next  two  pairs  are  "in  the 
swing,"  the  fourth  pair  are  "point  cattle"  and  the  rear  pair  are 
called  "wheelers."  The  leaders  are  the  best  trained,  while  the 
wheelers  are  the  heaviest  yoke  of  the  team. 

The  training  begins  when  the  animals  reach  the  age  of  one 
and  one-half  or  two  years,  but  they  do  not  attain  their  best 
development  until  their  fifth  or  sixth  year.  They  are  service- 
able, under  average  conditions,  until  they  reach  the  age  of  ten  or 
twelve  years. 

In  the  South  oxen  for  logging  purposes  weigh  from  1000  to 


ANIMAL  DRAFT   POWER  131 

1200  pounds  each  and  are  generally  purchased  from  farmers 
near  the  logging  operation.  They  usually  are  light  weight 
when  purchased  and  require  a  year  or  more  of  proper  feeding 
before  they  attain  their  average  efficiency.  Heavy  or  well 
trained  animals  may  bring  as  high  as  $200  per  yoke. 

Horses.  —  Horses  are  used  in  the  Appalachians,  southern  pine 
region,  Lake  States,  Inland  Empire  and  the  Northeast.  They 
stand  cold  weather  well,  are  active  and  are  moderate  eaters.  They 
are  best  adapted  for  logging  on  smooth  or  rolling  ground,  and 
with  good  care  will  remain  efficient  for  from  four  to  seven  years. 
Horses  which  have  reached  the  age  of  fifteen  years  are  seldom 
profitable  on  a  logging  operation. 

Horses  should  not  be  used  for  logging  purposes  until  they  are 
from  four  to  six  years  of  age  and  when  first  put  at  work  should 
be  broken  in  gradually.  In  the  South,  new  animals  should  not 
be  put  at  hard  work  during  the  hot  summer  months,  but  should 
preferably  be  purchased  in  the  fall  and  gradually  broken  in  as 
the  weather  becomes  cooler. 

In  northern  Alabama,  when  well  cared  for,  they  are  as  satis- 
factory as  mules,  but  farther  south  the  climate  is  not  so  favorable 
for  them.  When  improperly  housed  and  fed  they  are  less  efl&- 
cient  than  mules  and  oxen. 

Horses  for  skidding  purposes  should  weigh  from  1200  to  1600 
pounds  each.  Those  weighing  from  1200  to  1400  pounds  are  best 
adapted  for  handling  small  logs,  and  for  rough  conditions  because 
they  are  more  agile  than  heavier  animals.  Those  weighing  from 
1400  to  1600  pounds  are  preferred  for  work  in  a  flat  or  rolling 
region  and  for  large  logs.  Weights  ranging  from  1500  to  1700 
pounds  usually  are  selected  for  wagon  and  two-sled  hauling. 
Such  animals  are  not  suflficiently  active  for  use  on  rough  ground 
or  steep  slopes.  The  weights  preferred  for  hauling  skidder  lines 
in  the  South  range  from  1000  to  1400  pounds. 

The  general  type  of  horse  preferred  for  logging  purposes  is  one 
with  high  withers,  and  broad  loins  and  chest,  and  should  have 
legs  which  are  free  from  all  blemishes.  Old  scratches  or  other 
wounds  are  easily  injured  in  working  around  brush  or  in  mud 
or  hard  snow,  and  often  the  animal  must  be  relieved  from  work. 
Large  hoofs  are  an  important  factor  in  selecting  horses  for  work 
in  rocky  places,  since  there  is  less  liabihty  of  the  foot  slipping 
into  holes  between  rocks. 


132  LOGGING 

Horses  for  logging  purposes  may  be  purchased  from  dealers 
who  make  a  specialty  of  draft  animals,  or  from  farmers  in  the 
prairie  regions. 

Mules.  —  Mules  are  used  more  extensively  in  the  South  than 
in  any  other  section. 

The  chief  points  of  advantage  are : 

(1)  They  will  stand  more  heat  than  an  ox  or  a  horse  and  arc, 
therefore,  better  adapted  for  long  or  hard  hauls  during  summer 
months  or  in  a  hot  climate. 

(2)  They  will  stand  rougher  treatment  and  perform  more 
labor  on  poor  feed  than  a  horse. 

(3)  They  are  less  excitable  than  horses  and,  therefore,  are 
well  suited  for  use  in  operations  where  colored  teamsters  are 
employed. 

(4)  They  are  more  agile  than  horses  on  rough  ground. 

(5)  They  eat  less  than  horses  and  seldom  overfeed. 

Mules  have  not  proved  a  success  in  the  North  where  low  tem- 
peratures prevail  during  the  winter. 

Under  favorable  conditions  there  is  little  difference  in  the 
amount  of  work  performed  daily  by  mules  and  horses. 

Mules  for  logging  purposes  range  in  weight  from  1100  pounds 
for  leaders  to  1400  pounds  for  wheelers.  Southern  loggers  usually 
purchase  their  mules  in  the  St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City  markets 
or  from  farmers  in  Kansas  and  nearby  states.  The  best  mules 
are  raised  in  Missouri,  Kentucky  and  Kansas. 


The  rations  given  to  animals  vary  greatly  because  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  character  of  feed  available  and  the  diversified  opin- 
ions of  feeders. 

A  draft  animal  at  hard  work  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
concentrated  food  containing  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats 
which  is  fed  in  the  form  of  grains,  such  as  corn,  oats  and  barley; 
mill  products,  including  corn  meal,  ground  corn  and  oats,  and 
similar  combinations;  and  the  by-products,  cottonseed  meal 
cottonseed  hulls  and  linseed  meal.  In  addition,  animals  require 
rough  material,  such  as  hay  of  various  kinds,  corn  fodder,  corn 
husks  and  like  feeds  to  give  bulk  to  the  ration.  If  no  rough 
fodder  or  hay  is  given,  an  animal  will  consume  more  concentrated 
food  than  is  necessary  to  keep  it  in  working  condition.     On  the 


ANIMAL   DRAFT   POWER  133 

other  hand,  heavily-worked  animals  cannot  subsist  on  roughage 
alone  because  the  digestible  nutrients  are  so  small  that  they 
cannot  consume  a  sufficient  bulk  to  secure  the  proper  amount  of 
nourishment. 

In  preparing  rations  for  animals,  horses  and  mules  require 
different  treatment  from  oxen  because  they  have  smaller  stomachs. 
As  they  have  less  power  to  digest  foods,  they  must  be  fed  less 
at  one  time  and  at  more  frequent  intervals. 

The  degree  of  digestibility  is  dependent  on  two  factors;  namely, 
the  length  of  time  the  food  remains  in  the  digestive  tract,  and  on 
the  fineness  of  the  division  of  the  food.  Mastication  is  less 
in  horses  and  mules  than  in  oxen  because  the  former  must  do 
all  the  chewing  before  the  food  is  swallowed  while  ruminants, 
such  as  the  ox,  regurgitate  their  food  and  chew  it  at  will. 

Students  of  animal  nutrition  have  prepared  tables  showing 
the  amounts  of  the  various  constituents  required  for  animals  of  a 
standard  weight  of  1000  pounds,  performing  a  given  kind  of 
labor.^  Other  weights  are  in  proportion.  Such  tables  are  known 
as  feeding  standards  and  are  an  approximate  statement  of  the 
amounts  of  the  different  nutrients  required  by  animals  and  may 
be  used  as  a  guide  by  feeders. 

In  general,  a  horse  or  a  mule  requires  from  2.3  to  2.5  pounds  of 
dry  matter  containing  If  pounds  of  digestible  matter  for 
each  100  pounds  weight.  Oxen  require  about  2.6  pounds  of  dry 
material,  containing  the  same  weight  of  digestible  matter  as  re- 
quired for  horses  and  mules. 

In  calculating  rations  according  to  feeding  tables,  it  is  only 
essential  that  the  quantities  of  carl)ohydrates  and  fats  corre- 
spond approximately,  because  they  both  serve  practically  the 
same  purpose  and  an  excess  of  one  may  be  offset  by  a  deficiency 
of  the  other. 

The  test  of  the  fitness  of  a  ration  for  a  draft  animal  is  the 
ability  of  the  animal  to  maintain  an  even  weight.  Generally,  if 
a  healthy  animal  loses  weight,  it  is  an  indication  of  insufficient 
food,  while  an  increase  denotes  an  excessive  ration.  This  does 
not  refer  to  minor  changes  in  weight  from  day  to  day  but  to 
changes  observed  over  a  period  of  several  weeks. 

Oats  are  generally  preferred  to  corn  for  logging  horses  and 
mules,  especially  during  hot  weather,  while  cracked  corn  and 
1  The  Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards  are  given  in  the  Appendix. 


134  LOGGING 

cottonseed  products  often  are  an  important  part  of  an  ox  ration. 
Timothy  hay  is  preferred  for  horses  and  mules,  and  "prairie" 
or  wild  hay  for  oxen. 

The  dry  matter  and  digestible  food  ingredients  for  various 
classes  of  feeding  stuffs  are  given  in  the  Appendix^  and  by  the 
use  of  this  data  and  the  feeding  standards^  a  balanced  ration  may 
be  prepared,  or  an  existing  unsatisfactor}^  ration  modified.  Since 
grains  and  by-products  like  bran  vary  considerably  in  weight  for 
a  given  volume  of  feed,  the  use  of  dry  measure  in  determining 
quantities  is  not  recommended. 

Rations  fed  to  horses  and  mules  doing  various  classes  of  work, 
including  logging  are  given  in  the  Appendix.^  Those  for  logging 
animals  sliow  a  rather  wide  variation  and  indicate  the  a]:)sence 
of  reliable  feeding  standards. 

Horses  and  mules  should  be  fed  three  times  daily  giving  about 
one-half  of  the  ration  at  night.  The  morning  and  noon 
feed  should  consist  largely  of  concentrated  feeds,  giving  the  bulk 
of  the  "roughage"  at  night.  The  practice  of  one  or  two  feedings 
per  day  for  horses  and  mules  is  not  considered  advisable,  because 
it  is  a  departure  from  the  normal  feeding  habits  of  such  animals 
and  may  induce  stomach  or  intestinal  disorders.  Animals  are  in- 
clined to  over-eat  when  the  interval  between  feeding  periods  is 
long.  Oxen,  however,  may  be  fed  once  a  day  only  and  still  keep  in 
good  condition,  owing  to  their  greater  stomach  capacity  and 
their  ability  to  regurgitate  and  later  chew  their  food. 


WATER    REQUIREMENTS 

The  amount  of  water  required  by  horses  depends  largely 
upon  the  season  of  the  year,  the  temperature  of  the  air,  the 
character  of  the  feed,  the  individual  peculiarities  of  the  horse 
and  the  amount  and  character  of  the  work  performed.  The 
water  requirements  increase  with  a  rise  in  temperature  and  with 
the  amount  of  work  performed  since  both  factors  induce  per- 
spiration. 

Less  water  is  required  when  concentrated  or  green  succulent 
foods  are  fed  than  when  the  bulk  of  the  ration  consists  of  coarse 
fodder  or  of  dry  food.  A  horse  under  average  conditions  will 
drink  from  50  to  65  pounds  of  water  daily,  while  under  heavy 

1  Page  526.     ^  Page  525.     ^  Pages  528  and  259 


ANIMAL   DRAFT   POWER  135 

work  or  during  warm  weather  from  85  to  110  pounds  will  be 
consumed.  Mules  in  Oklahoma,  during  hot  summer  weather, 
consumed  113  pounds  of  water  daily  with  a  minimum  of  107 
pounds  and  a  maximum  of  175. ^  The  ration  was  composed  of 
grain  and  hay. 

Experiments  conducted  in  the  British  Army  showed  that  horses, 
when  allowed  to  drink  at  will,  consumed  about  one-fourth  of 
their  daily  allowance  in  the  morning,  about  three-eighths  at  noon 
and  the  remainder  at  night. 

European  experiments  indicate  that  the  time  of  drinking  has 
no  appreciable  effect  on  the  digestibility  of  the  food.  Animals 
may  be  watered  either  before  or  after  feeding  with  equally  good 
results,  but  it  is  desirable  to  always  observe  the  same  practice 
since  some  animals  do  not  feed  well  if  watered  after  feeding,  when 
they  are  accustomed  to  being  watered  before.  However,  animals 
should  not  be  watered  when  they  are  hot,  since  it  may  induce 
colic  or  other  similar  ailments. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO    CHAPTER  VIII 

Allen,  E.  W.  :  The  feeding  of  Farm  Animals.  U.  S.  Dcpt  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bull.  No.  22,  Washington,  190L 

Dalrymple,  Dr.  W.  H.  :  Economic  Feeding  of  Work  Animals  used  in 
Logging  Operations.  Lumber  Trade  Journal,  Nov.  1.  1914,  pp.  27  and 
28. 

Dalrymple,  Dr.  W.  H.  :  Feeding  Work  Horses  and  Mules.  Lumber 
Trade  Journal,  July  1,  1914,  p.  15. 

Langworthy,  C.  F.:  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture, Farmers  Bull.  No.  170,  Washington,  1903. 

1  See  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding,  by  C.  F.  Langworthy.  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  170,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


SKIDWAYS  AND    STORAGE   SITES 

The  transport  of  timber  from  the  stump  to  the  manufacturing 
plant  generally  comprises  two  distinct  operations.^ 

(1)  Assembling  the  logs  at  depots,  called  skid  ways  or  yards, 
usually  near  the  point  of  felling.  This  is  termed  skidding  or 
yarding,  and  may  be  accomplished  by. manual  labor;  by  animal 
power  with  or  without  the  use  of  vechicles;  by  power-driven 
machinery;  or  by  log  slides  and  chutes. 

(2)  The  transport  of  the  assembled  logs  to  a  stream  or  to  the 
manufacturing  plant.  This  is  termed  hauling  and  may  be  done 
with  some  form  of  cart,  wagon,  sled,  railroad,  flume,  aerial 
tram,  or  log  slide. 

Skidding  and  hauling  may  be  conducted  simultaneously,  as 
in  the  South  and  West  where  rail  transport  is  used,  or  at  dif- 
ferent seasons,  as  in  the  spruce  forests  of  New  England  where 
hauling  is  done  on  sleds. 

LOG  STORAGE  IN  THE  FOREST 

The  character  and  location  of  the  storage  points  depend  on 
the  manner  in  which  the  timber  is  to  be  hauled  and  on  the 
topography. 

For  Sled  Haul.  —  Skidways  for  sled  haul  are  built  along  the 
main  or  secondary  two-sled  roads  and  are  constructed  in  the 
following  manner.  A  log  called  a  head  block,  12  or  14  feet  long 
is  placed  parallel  with  the  road  and  from  2  to  8  feet  away  from 
it.  On  top  of  the  head  block,  two  skids  10  or  12  inches  in  diam- 
eter are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  road  the  forward  end  resting 
in  notches  3  or  4  inches  deep  which  are  cut  into  the  head  block. 
The  skids  are  spaced  about  8  feet  apart  for  standard-length  logs. 
When  the  skidway  extends  back  for  some  distance  from  the  road, 

^  On  small  operations  the  logs  may  be  taken  direct  from  the  stump  to  the 
mill. 

136 


SKIDWAYS  AND   STORAGE   SITES 


137 


the  skids  are  supported  at  intermediate  points  by  blocks  or  logs. 
The  rear  ends  of  the  skids  are  sunk  into  the  ground  so  that  logs 
may  be  dragged  over  them  by  the  skidding  team.  Each  skid  is 
notched  just  over  the  head  block,  and  in  this  notch  a  block  is  placed 
which  prevents  the  logs  from  rolling  off  of  the  front  of  the  skidway. 
Another  scheme  for  holding  logs  on  the  skids  uses  two  poles 
about  10  feet  long  and  0  or  7  inches  in  diameter  which  are  placed 


Fig.  24.  —  Decking  Logs  w-ith  a  Crosshaul,  the  Block  being  fastened  at  the 
Front  End  of  the  Skidway.     New  York. 

upright  between  the  head  block  and  a  pole  which  extends  across 
the  skidway  from  skid  to  skid  and  which  rests  in  notches  cut  in 
the  head  block.  This  method  makes  it  possible  to  deck  the  logs 
square  in  front  and,  therefore,  more  logs  can  be  put  on  a  given 
skidway.  It  is  more  difficult,  however,  to  load  sleds  from  such 
a  skidway  since  the  poles  must  be  removed  before  loading  begins, 
and  the  logs  may  roll  down  when  the  poles  are  cut  away. 

Skidways  for  long  logs  may  have  three  or  more  skids,  the  num- 
ber depending  upon  the  length  of  timber  being  decked.  Those 
for  sled  hauling  should  be  placed  on  the  same  side  of  the  stream 
as  the  timber  which  is  being  skidded  and  the  road  also  should 


138  LOGGING 

have  a  slight  down  grade  in  order  to  facihtate  starting  the 
sleds. 

Logs  may  be  decked  on  level  ground  to  a  height  of  from  20  to 
30  feet.  They  are  elevated  by  means  of  the  crosshaul,  operated 
by  animals.  A  "decking"  crew  may  comprise  four  or  five  men 
and  one  team.  The_equipment  comprises  four  cant  hooks,  two 
pole  skids  6  inches  in  diameter  and  from  8  to  10  feet  long,  and  a 
f-inch  crosshaul  chain  about  40  feet  long  with  a  grab  hook  on 
one  end.  The  logs  are  brought  to  the  rear  of  the  skidway  and 
are  then  rolled  by  a  "tailer-in"  to  the  base  of  the  logs  already 
decked.  The  end  of  the  chain  carrjdng  the  hook  is  then  thrown 
over  and  under  the  center  of  the  log  to  be  decked,  after  which 
the  hook  is  fastened  to  one  of  the  decked  logs  just  below  the  spot 
where  it  is  desired  to  place  the  new  log.  The  free  end  of  the  chain 
passes  over  the  skidway  and,  if  the  pull  is  to  be  straight  away, 
is  attached  to  a  hook  on  the  double-tree.  After  adjusting  the 
chain,  skids  are  placed  against  the  decked  logs,  and  the  team  is 
started.  Two  "ground  loaders"  guide  the  log  straight  up  the 
skids  using  cant  hooks  for  this  purpose.  Logs  with  taper,  crooks, 
large  knots  and  similar  defects  seldom  roll  straight  and  the  ground 
loaders  must  be  on  their  guard  continually.  A  "top-loader" 
who  stands  on  top  of  the  pile  of  logs  directs  the  log  to  its  place, 
frees  the  grab  hook  if  necessary  and  also  directs  the  teamster. 
The  direction  of  pull  may  be  modified  to  meet  special  conditions. 
For  instance,  instead  of  attaching  the  chain  directly  to  the  double- 
tree it  may  be  passed  through  a  block  fastened  to  a  tree  directly 
behind  the  skidway.  This  enables  the  team  to  pull  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  log  is  traveling  and  is  of  es- 
pecial advantage  when  brush,  boggy  ground  or  other  obstacles 
prevent  a  straight-away  pull.  The  chain  may  also  be  passed 
through  a  block  and  brought  forward  over  the  skidway  so  that  the 
horses  pull  on  the  same  side  on  which  the  logs  are  being  decked.^ 
This  may  be  desirable  where  there  is  a  bad  bottom  or  other  phys- 
ical hindrances  to  the  usual  method  of  operating. 

Decking  also  may  be  done  with  the  skidding  horse  or  team  in 
the  following  manner.  A  block  is  rigged  on  a  tree  at  the  front 
of  the  skidway  along  the  main  road  and  another  block  on  a  tree 
along  the  skid  road.  The  decking  line  passes  through  these 
blocks,  one  end  being  attached  to  the  parbuckle,  and  the  other 
1  See  Fig.  24. 


SKIDWAYS  AND  STORAGE  SITES 


139 


end  serving  as  a  point  of  attacliment  for  the  draft  animal.  The 
team  brings-  the  log  to  the  rear  of  the  skidway.  The  yardman 
places  the  parbuckle  around  the  log  and  attaches  the  decking 
chain  to  it,  and  as  the  team  returns  for  another  log,  the  teamster 
hooks  one  prong  of  his  skidding  grab  into  a  link  of  the  chain  and 
the  log  is  pulled  up  the  skids  and  upon  the  skidway.  The  chain 
is  detached  b}'-  the  teamster  who  then  proceeds  on  his  way,  the 
chain  being  again  fixed  in  position  by  the  yardman. 

L^arge.^kidways  ^can  be  filled  most  economically  when  they 
are  built  in  tiers  on  slopes.     The  logs  are  then  delivered  above 


Fig.  25.  —  Skidwaj's  along  a  Two-sled  Road.     Montana. 

the  skidway  and  rolled  to  the  levels  below.  Large  side  hiU 
skidways  may  cqntain_Jrom^  feet  log  scale. 

During  hauHng  time  skidways  may  be  places  of  transfer  from 
skidding  to  hauling  equipment  in  which  event  they  are  known  as 
'^oTskidways." 

Wlien  sleds  are  used  for  hauling,  the  skidways  are  located  at 
convenient  points  along  the  logging  roads  which  load  to  a  landing 
or  storage  yard  on  a  stream  down  which  the  logs  are  to  be  floated, 
^"he  sites  for  skidwaj's  should  be  selected  by  the  logging  foreman 
at  the  time  the  sled  roads  are  laid  out,  and  the  routes  of  the  latter 


140  LOGGING 

should  be  chosen  with  reference  to  good  skidway  sites  as  well  as 
desirable  grades.  Rroyision  should  be  made  for  a  down-hill 
haul  from  the  stump  to  the  storage  point.  Skidding  cannot 
be  carried  on  profitably  for  long  distances  on  level  ground, 
consequently  a  flat  country  requires  the  greatest  number  of 
skidways.  Large  skidways  are  preferable  because  there  is  less 
snow  to  be  shoveled  off  at  loading  time,  and  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  a  minimum  mileage  of  road  is  required. 

Landings.  —  Temporary  storage  grounds  called  landings  may 
be  made  along  the  banks  of  driveable  streams  or  on  the  edges 


Fig.  26.  ^  a   \Uw^h  aiul    ruinhlc  Skidway  at  the  End  of  a  Trailing  Log 
Slide.     New  York. 

of  lakes,  when  the  logs  are  to  be  floated  to  the  mill  or  to  market. 
The  logs  may  be  brought  to  the  landing  on  sleds,  or  by  slides, 
flumes,  or  railways.  The  type  of  landing  will  depend  upon  the 
character  of  the  stream  and  the  number  of  logs  to  be  handled. 
When  the  stream  is  small  and  the  storage  area  limited,  sled- 
and  rail-hauled  logs  may  be  decked  from  15  to  30  feet  high  in  the 
stream  bed  parallel  to  the  banks.  If  the  banks  are  high  the  logs 
may  be  brought  to  the  edge  and  rolled  down  into  the  stream  bed 
in  a  more  or  less  rough-and-tumble  manner.  The  landings  at 
the  ends  of  slides  and  flumes  are  always  of  this  character,  since 
it  is  impracticable  to  deck  logs  brought  down  by  such  forms  of 
transportation. 

Logs  placed  on  frozen  streams  or  lakes  usually  are  scattered 
over  a  wide  area  in  order  to  save  the  labor  of  decking  and  to 
prevent  the  weight  of  the  logs  from  breaking  through  the  ice. 


SKIDWAYS  AND   STORAGE   SITES 


141 


For  Wagon  Haul.  —  Skid  ways  are  seldom  made  for  wagon 
hauling.  The  logs  are  bunched  in  the  forest  in  a  place  accessible 
to  the  wagons  and  are  loaded  with  the  crosshaul  and  taken  to  a 
skidway  along  the  railroad  or  direct  to  the  mill. 

For  Railroad  Haul.  —  These  vary  in  character  depending  on 
whether  the  logs  are  loaded  on  cars  by  animals  or  by  power. 

Skidway  sites  for  animal  loading  with  the  crosshaul  should 
not  be  lowor  than  the  track  because  it  is  too  difficult  to  handle 


Fig.  27.  —  A  Skidway  or  Loadiuf^  Dock  along  a  Logging  Railroad  in  West 
Virginia.     The  logs  in  the  structure  are  later  loaded  and  hauled  away. 

the  logs.  A  straight  "get-away"  of  40  feet  should  be  provided 
on  the  side  of  the  track  opposite  the  skidway  where  the  loading 
team  can  travel  back  and  forth.  An  area  several  hundred  feet 
in  length  along  the  track  may  be  cleared  for  storage,  especially 
if  the  stand  of  timber  is  heavy  and  hauling  precedes  rail  transport 
by  some  weeks  in  which  case  the  skidway  can  then  be  used  but 
once.  When  hauling  is  simultaneous  with  rail  transport,  skid- 
ways  are  filled  repeatedl}''  and  less  storage  space  is  required. 

With  animal  loading  it  is  essential  that  the  logs  be  carefully 
decked    parallel    to   the    railroad    track. ^     The    skidways    have 
two  continuous  rows  of  poles  placed  about  8  feet  apart  and  ex- 
1  See  Figs.  55  and  121, 


142  LOGGING 

tending  at  right  angles  to  the  track  for  a  maximum  distance  of 
100  feet.  The  logs  usually  are  brought  to  the  rear  of  the 
skidway  and  rolled  toward  the  track,  leaving  a  clearance  of 
approximately  10  feet  between  the  first  log  and  the  rail.  Logs 
are  seldom  decked  more  than  four  high  as  it  is  more  economical 
to  place  new  skids  than  to  spend  time  in  decking. 

A  form  of  skidway  for  transferring  logs  from  skidding  devices 
to  railroad  cars  is  shown  in  Fig.  27.  The.  skidway  is  built  crib- 
fashion  of  merchantable  logs  which  are  loaded  and  hauled  away 
when  the  job  is  completed.  The  skidway  should  be  high  enough 
so  that  the  top  of  the  load  on  the  car  does  not  come  above  the 
level  of  the  skids,  thus  facilitating  hand  loading.  The  skidway 
is  made  long  enough  to  permit  several  cars  to  be  loaded  at  once. 

Where  power  loaders  are  used,  skidways  often  are  merely  areas 
along  the  track  from  which  the  brush  and  debris  have  been 
removed  so  that  the  teams  can  deliver  the  logs.  In  a  flat  region 
where  plenty  of  space  is  available  the  logs  are  seldom  decked. 
It  is  unnecessary^  to  have  logs  arranged  parallel  to  the  track  or 
placed  on  skids  since  the  loader  can  pick  them  up  readily  at 
distances  not  exceeding  100  feet.^  If  there  are  steep  slopes  near 
the  railroad,  logs  are  often  hauled  to  the  edge  and  rolled  down 
by  gravity,  forming  a  "rough  and  tumble"  skidway.  This  pro- 
vides a  large  storage  area  and  reduces  labor  in  handhng  the  logs. 
Since  power  loaders  can  readily  pick  up  logs  several  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  track  the  logger  can  locate  his  railroad  without 
reference  to  loading  sites.' 

Special  landings  or  yards  are  not  necessary  on  many  operations 
where  power  skidders  are  used.  Thus,  power  skidders  having 
a  loading  device,  load  logs  as  they  are  brought  to  the  railroad, 
and  the  only  improvement  necessary  for  loading  is  a  cleared  space 
around  the  machine  which  will  enable  the  loaderman  to  manipu- 
late the  loading  boom.  Overhead  and  snaking  systems  often 
are  of  this  character.  When  the  logs  are  not  loaded  by  the  skidder, 
they  are  decked  up  in  piles  along  the  track  parallel  to  the  roadbed, 
no  special  base  being  prepared.  Such  a  procedure  is  followed 
with  some  types  of  snaking  and  slack-rope  skidders. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  logs  formerly  were  loaded  chiefly  by  means 
of  the  "gin-pole"  which  required  the  construction  of  a  landing 
built  along  the  railroad  track  on  which  the  logs  were  placed 
1  See  Fig.  105.     ^  See  Figs.  26  and  102. 


SKIDWAYS  AND   STORAGE  SITES  143 

by  the  yarding  or  road  engine.  Such  landings  were  relatively 
expensive  to  construct  and  in  recent  years  the  gin-pole  method, 
and  the  landing  have  been  superseded  by  some  overhead  loading 
device^  which  does  not  require  a  landing,  and  which  is  faster  than 
the  gin-pole  method,  also  permitting  some  choice  in  the  order  in 
which  logs  are  loaded  on  the  cars. 

*  See  page  367. 


CHAPTER  X 
HAND  LOGGING  AND  ANIMAL   SNAKING 

HAND    LOGGING 

The  movement  of  logs  by  hand  from  the  stump  to  a  point 
where  they  can  be  reached  by  animals  is  commonly  practiced 
in  the  Appalachian  mountains  and  is  known  as  "  brutting."  Trails 
are  cleared  down  the  steep  slopes  and  the  logs  are  rolled  to  a 
stream  bed  or  flat  where  hand  labor  is  replaced  by  animal  labor. 
Hewed  crossties  frequently  are  made  in  rough  mountain  regions 
and  dragged  down  the  slopes  to  streams  or  to  accessible  points. 

Hand  logging  also  is  practiced  in  the  white  cedar  (Chamcecy- 
paris  thyoides)  forests  of  the  Coastal  Plain  region.  The  trees 
are  felled,  cut  into  sections  and  carried  by  men  or  carted  on 
wheelbarrows  over  plank  runs  to  a  light  tram  road  where  they 
are  loaded  on  small  cars  and  pushed  to  a  point  available  to  a 
steam  tram  road. 

Some  operators  in  the  cypress  swamps  of  this  region  cut  swaths, 
called  "creeks,"  at  half-mile  intervals  through  the  forests  locat- 
ing them  with  reference  to  the  current  when  the  swamp  is  flooded. 
These  are  made  during  a  dry  season  and  are  cut  from  50  to  150 
feet  wide  according  to  the  number  of  logs  that  are  to  be  floated 
down  them.  The  trees  which  have  been  girdled  for  about  a  year 
are  felled  and  cut  into  logs  during  a  dry  period  and  left  on  the 
ground  until  flood  waters  cover  the  swamp  to  a  depth  of  5  or  6 
feet.  Negro  laborers  are  then  taken  to  the  swamp  in  boats  and 
they  pole  the  logs,  sometimes  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  to  the 
nearest  "creek,"  down  which  they  are  floated  to  the  rafting 
ground,  where  they  are  made  into  rafts,  and  then  towed  to  a 
mill. 

Hand  logging  was  common  on  the  Pacific  Coast  for  many 
years  before  the  industry  reached  its  present  development.  The 
timber  was  felled  on  slopes  close  to  tidewater  or  some  driveable 
stream,  the  logs  were  rolled  into  the  water,  made  into  rafts  and 

144 


HAND   LOGGING  AND  ANIMAL  SNAKING  145 

sold  to  other  loggers  or  manufacturers  who  transported  them  to 
market.  Often  the  stumpage  was  not  the  property  of  the  logger 
who  cut  it  and  the  tmiber  was  sold  at  a  price  slightly  above  the 
cost  of  the  labor  expended  upon  it.  The  increase  in  the  value  of 
stumpage  and  the  greater  care  given  to  timber  properties  by  the 
owners  has  largely  elhninated  this  class  of  loggers  in  the  United 
States.  In  British  Columbia  hand  logging  is  still  practiced  to  a 
limited  extent  by  virtue  of  "hand  logger's"  permits  issued  by 
the  Provincial  Government. 

The  introduction  of  modern  machinery  for  logging  has  given 
a  wider  meaning  on  the  Pacific  Coast  to  the  term  "hand  logging," 
and  it  is  now  applied  to  loggers  who  operate  on  a  small  scale  with 
animals. 

SNAKING    WITH    ANIMALS 

The  transportation  of  logs  with  animals  without  the  use  of 
vehicles  is  practiced  in  many  parts  of  the  country  to  take  logs 
from  the  stump  to  a  skid  way,  stream,  railroad,  chute  or  other 
form  of  transport. 

It  usually  is  a  short-distance  method  and  the  logs  are  taken 
out  over  crude  trails  from  which  only  such  obstructions  have  been 
removed  as  are  necessary  to  make  snaking  feasible.  The  usual  dis^. 
tance  for  snaking  on  the  level  or  on  gentle  slopes  docs  not  exceec} 
_500_fe£t.  However,  logs  may  l)c  dragged  1000  or  more  feet  from 
the  stump  to  the  skidway,  but  such  long  distances  are  not  consid- 
ered advisable  except  where  there  is  a  steep  downgrade,  or  where 
there  is  not  enough  timber  to  warrant  the  construction  of  a 
road  nearer  to  it. 

Horses  and  mules,  singly  or  in  teams,  and  oxen  in  single,  double 
or  triple  yokes  may  be  used  for  short-distance  skidding.  The 
number  of  animals  is  governed  by  the  weight  of  the  timber  hand- 
led, the  character  of  bottom  and  the  grade  of  the  skidding  trail. 
In  the  spruce  region  of  the  Northeast,  two  animals  are  used 
to  yard  timber,  when  logs  are  cut  in  long  lengths,  while  in  north- 
ern New  York  single  animals  are  preferred  because  the  timber 
is  cut  into  short  lengths.  The  usual  practice  in  other  regions 
is  to  use  two  or  more  animals.  Single  animals  have  been  tried 
for  skidding  small  second-growth  loblolly  pine  in  the  Coastal 
Plain  Region,  but  because  of  the  weight  of  the  wood  and  the 
enervating  climate  the  practice  has  not  proved  satisfactory. 


146  •  LOGGING 

Although  the  detailed  methods  followed  in  snaking  vary  in  the 
different  regions,  the  general  procedure  is  about  as  follows. 
Swampers  begin  at  each  end  of  the  skidwav  and  cut  out  ,1,  mnin 
trail  from  5  to  7  feet  wide  which  runs  to  the  back  end  of  the  strip 
jo  be  logged.  Brush,  roots,  and  windfalls  are  removed  and  wet 
spots  corduroyed.  The_swamper  also  cuts  the  limbs  from  the. 
logs^snipes  them  on  the  forward  end,  if  necessary,  and  cuts  a 
^^ride/'  on  the  bottom  of  the  logs  which  are  large  or  which  may 


Fig.  28.  —  Oxen   skidding  a   Southern   Yellow   Pine   Log   containing    1200 
Board  Feet.     Arkansas. 

have  to  be  pulled  up-grade.  The  teamsters  draw  the  merchant- 
able logs  to  the  skidway,  working  back  to  the  far  end  of  the  main 
road  before  logs  nearby,  but  off  from  the  main  road,  are  dragged  in. 
Branch  trails  are  built  out  from  the  main  ones  so  that  logs  from 
any  part  of  the  area  have  to  be  dragged  only  a  few  feet  before 
reaching  a  cleared  runway.  It  sometimes  is  necessary  to  use  a 
block  and  tackle  to  get  large  logs  out  of  difficult  places,  but  this 
method  is  seldom  used  until  all  usual  methods  have  failed. 

Skidding  for  long  distances  is  common  in  the  rougher  sections 
of  the  Appalachian  mountains  and  in  Pennsylvania  where 
horses  may  be  used  to  drag  logs  for  distances  not  exceeding  1 
mile.  The  logs  are  brought  down  trails  which  are  sometimes  so 
steep  that  the  animals  must  be  returned  to  the  woods  by  a  more 
circuitous  route.  The  skidway  is  placed  along  the  railroad  in 
the  valley  and  a  trail  is  built  from  each  end  to  the  top  of  the 


HAND  LOGGING  AND  ANIMAL  SNAKING 


147 


slope.i  The  trail  is  made  6  or  8  feet  wide,  cleared  of  obstructions 
and,  when  necessary,  banked  on  the  outer  edge  with  skids  to 
prevent  logs  from  leaving  it.  Swamps  are  corduroyed,  streams 
bridged  and  rough  places  covered  with  "skippers."  These  are 
timbers  8  or  10  inches  in  diameter  and  12  feet  long  which  are  either 
placed  zigzag  across  the  road,  the  angle  between  skippers  being 
about  60  degrees,  or  the  poles  are  placed  directly  across  the  trail 


Fig.  29. 


Skidding  Trails  leading  down  to  a  Skidway  along  the  Logging 
Railroad.     West  Virginia. 


at  intervals  of  from  4  to  6  feet.  Logs  drag  over  zigzag  skippers 
more  easily  than  over  those  placed  directly  across  the  trail. 
Rough  chutes  are  sometimes  built  in  the  stream  beds  to  cover 
rocks  and  other  obstructions,  when  it  is  necessary  to  divert  the 
trail  from  the  slopes  to  the  stream  bed.  Short-radius  curves 
are  undesirable  because  they  decrease  the  draft  power  of  the 
animals,  and  make  it  hard  to  keep  a  long  turn  of  logs  in  the 
trail.  Logs  are  brought  down  in  "turns"  made  up  of  several  logs 
fastened  in  single  file.  Eight  men  can  build  a  mile  of  skidding 
trail  in  one  day  when  there  is  only  a  limited  amount  of  bridge 
and  other  timber  work  to  do.     On  level  stretches  a  two-pole 

1  See  Fig.  29. 


148 


LOGGING 


chute  is  sometimes  built  to  facilitate  dragging^.     They  are  oc- 
casionally used  on  gentle  slopes  if  the  bottom  is  rough. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  animal  logging  has  been  replaced  by 
power  skidders  except  for  short  hauls  on  some  small  operations. 
Skid  roads  formerly  used  for  animal  snaking  in  the  Northwest  were 
carefully  located,  stumps  were  removed,  cuts  and  fills  made  and 
the  roadbed  leveled  so  that  a  desirable  grade  was  secured.     Skids 


mwm 

/ 

^M 

Fig.  30.  —  A  Skipper  Road  on  a  West  Virginia  Operation. 


10  feet  long  and  from  10  to  14  inches  in  diameter  were  laid  across 
the  completed  grade  at  10-foot  intervals,  and  were  partly  buried 
in  the  ground  so  that  the  horses  could  step  over  them  easily. 
Wet  places  in  the  roadbed  were  covered  with  puncheons,  split  from 
western  red  cedar,  to  provide  a  footing  for  animals.  A  "saddle" 
was  adzed  out  of  the  center  of  each  skid  and  in  this  the  log  rode. 
On  curves  the  skids  were  longer  and  were  either  elevated  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  curve  to  prevent  the  tow  of  logs  from  crowding 
into  the  bank  or  the  skids  were  laid  flat  and  the  elevation  was 
secured  by  placing  small  sloping  skids  on  the  inside  of  the  curve. 
The  latter  was  regarded  as  the  better  method  since  the  small 

1  See  page  264. 


HAND   LOGGING  AND  ANIMAL  SNAKING  149 

skids  could  be  more  easily  placed  and,  if  necessary,  the  angle  of 
inclination  could  be  readily  changed.  On  level  stretches  the 
saddles  were  greased  to  reduce  friction.  Logs  were  fastened 
together  by  means  of  "grabs"  into  long  tows,  each  one  averaging 
1000  board  feet  per  horse.  A  team  on  a  road  of  this  character 
formerly  comprised  from  eight  to  ten  yokes  of  oxen  but  they 
were  later  replaced  by  horses,  from  four  to  fourteen  animals 
constituting  one  team. 

Drumming.  —  A  primitive  form  of  skidding,  called  ''drum- 
ming," is  sometimes  used  by  small  operators  in  the  Appalachian 
mountains  where  the  slopes  are  too  steep  for  animal  skidding, 
too  rough  for  cheap  road  construction,  and  where  the  size  of  the 
operation  does  not  warrant  the  use  of  power  skidders. 

A  large  drum,  hung  on  a  vertical  axis,  is  placed  close  to  the 
edge  of  the  plateau.  A  long  horizontal  lever  arm  to  which  a 
team  of  mules  is  hitched  is  fastened  to  the  barrel  of  the  drum. 
A  short,  stout  pole  is  fastened  by  one  end  to  this  lever  arm  and  the 
other  end  drags  on  the  ground  in  the  rear,  and  acts  as  a  brake 
when  the  drum  is  in  operation.  A  manila  cable  from  1500  to 
2000  feet  long  is  attached  to  the  drum  underneath  the  draft 
pole  and  is  carried  down  the  slope  by  men  and  fastened  to  a  log 
with  grab  hooks.  The  mules,  attached  to  the  draft  pole,  are 
started  and,  as  the  drum  revolves,  the  cable  is  wound  around 
it  and  the  log  gradually  dragged  up  the  slope.  Logs  are  drawn 
over  an  escarpment,  and  other  rough  places  in  a  chute  made  of 
logs.     Trails  are  not  cut  out  for  the  logs. 

SNAKING   EQUIPMENT 

A  strong  leather  harness  for  horses  and  mules,  and  suitable 
yokes  for  cattle  are  essential  for  snaking  logs.  Horses  and  mules 
when  worked  in  teams  require  a  set  of  double-trees  or  a  spreader, 
and  two  single-trees. 

Double-trees  are  preferred  for  flat  ground  and  easy  slopes, 
while  spreaders,  because  of  their  lighter  weight,  are  used  on 
steep  slopes,  since  they  do  not  injure  the  horses  by  striking 
them  on  the  fetlock  joints  or  other  parts  of  their  hind  legs. 

For  single  animals  a  spreader  only  is  required.  When  several 
teams  are  hitched  one  in  front  of  the  other  a  ^-inch  draft  chain 
is  required  to  which  each  double-tree  is  fastened.  The  draft 
chains  for  oxen  are  attached  to  rings  on  the  yokes.     Various 


150  LOGGING 

devices,  such  as  chokers,  tongs  and  grains,  are  used  to  attach  the 
log  to  the  draft  chain. 

Chokers.  —  A  choker  is  a  chain  from  12  to  16  feet  long  made 
from  f-inch  iron  with  or  without  a  choker-hook  on  one  end. 
When  a  choker-hook  is  used,  the  end  carrying  it  is  thrown 
around  the  forward  part  of  a  log  to  be  skidded  and  the  chain 
caught  in  the  throat  of  the  hook  (Fig.  32a). 

When  the  chain  has  no  attachments,  one  end  is  thrown  around 

the  forward  end  of  the  log,  looped  around  that  part  of  the  chain 

'\  /  which  is  to  be  attached  to 

'  J^  C'  the  draft,  after  which  is  it 

wrapped  several  times  a- 
round  the  chain  encircling 
the  log.  When  power  is 
applied  to  the  draft  end 
of  the  chain  the  noose 
around  the  log  tightens  and 
Fig.  31.  —  A  Common  Type  of  Spreader  prevents   it  from   slipping. 

Ground  '^''''^'"^  ""  ^^''^''  """"^    ^''''^^    ^^'^  '^''^'^''  "^^^^^^  ^'  ^^^'^^" 

ly  adjustable  to   any  size 

of  log,  may  be  used  for  single  logs,  or  several  small   logs  may 

be  bound  together  in  a  cluster  with  one  chain. 

The  draft  end  of  the  chain  may  be  attached  by  a  hook  to 
a  ring  in  the  yoke  of  the  rear  pair  of  oxen,  or  to  a  ring  on  the 
double-tree  or  spreader  when  other  animals  are  used.  If  the 
chain  is  not  supplied  with  a  hook,  the  ring  on  the  double-tree  to 
which  the  chain  is  attached  is  made  with  a  narrow  throat  in  which 
a  link  of  the  chain  is  caught  and  held  securely.  The  ring  is  often 
replaced  by  a  grab  hook  in  which  the  chain  is  caught.  The 
two  latter  forms  of  attachment  are  preferred  because  the  chain 
may  be  lengthened  or  shortened  at  will. 

Tongs.  —  Tongs  which  may  replace  chokers  for  handling 
medium-sized  logs  are  made  from  round  or  octagon  steel  Ig  or 
1|  inches  in  diameter,  and  have  a  spread  of  from  24  to  36  inches 
(Fig.  326).  A  ^-inch  chain  link  is  attached  to  each  short  arm 
of  the  tongs  and  these  links  are  connected  by  a  5-inch  steel  ring 
which  is  caught  in  a  hook  attached  to  the  double-tree.  Some- 
times a  hook  is  attached  to  the  ring  on  the  skidding  tongs,  in  which 
case  the  hook  on  the  double-tree  is  replaced  l:)y  a  ring. 

Grabs.  —  These  are  of  several  forms.     The  common  skidding 


HAND   LOGGING  AND  ANIMAL  SNAKING 


151 


grab  (Fig.  32c),  has  two  hooks  each  one  of  which  is  attached 
to  a  short  f-inch  chain  which  in  turn  is  fastened  to  a  ring  made 
of  the  same  sized  material.  The  hooks  are  driven  into  the  wood 
on  either  side  of  the  forward  end  of  the  log  and  grip  it  like  a 
pair  of  tongs.     The  grab  ring  is  attached  directly  to  the  spreader 


g  DOUBLE    COUPLER 


'J"Hook-K  X  iX'xS''^  /  DOUBLE  COUPLCT     ^ 

Fig.  32.  —  Various  Forms  of  Equipment  used  in  Snaking  Logs,  a,  A  chain 
choker.  6,  Skidding  tongs,  c,  A  common  form  of  skidding  grab,  d,  A 
patent  skidding  grab,  e,  The  "J"  hook  used  to  attach  the  tow  chain  to  a 
turn  of  logs.  /  and  g,  Two  forms  of  double  grabs  or  couplers,  h,  A  single 
grab  or  coupler. 

by  means  of  a  hook.  The  Morris  patent  skidding  grab  (Fig, 
32c?)  has  a  chain  with  a  large  ring  at  each  end.  The  grab  hooks 
are  attached  to  the  chain  by  narrow-throated  links  which  may 
be  set  at  any  point  in  order  to  make  the  distance  between  grabs 
conform  to  the  size  of  the  log.  The  draft  power  is  attached 
to  another  narrow-throated  ring  which  can  be  placed  midway 
between  the  grabs  and  thus  equalize  the  power.  On  steep  slopes 
where  logs  are  apt  to  run,  a  form  of  grab  shown  in  Fig.  32e  may  be 
used.     The  spreader  ring  is  attached  to  the  "J"  hook  and  when 


152 


LOGGING 


logs  gain  too  great  headway  and  threaten  to  nm  into  the  horses, 
the  latter  may  be  turned  to  one  side,  whereupon  the  tow  of  logs 


Fig.  33.  —  A  Turn  of  Logs  at  the  Dump  along  a  Skipper  Road.     The  logs 
are  fastened  together  with  "single  coupler"  grabs.     West  Virginia. 


A 


is   uncoupled   automatically.     Grabs   are   also   used   to    couple 
logs  together  in  turns  for  transportation  down  skidding  roads. 

There  are  several  different 
patterns,  including  two  forms 
of  double  grabs  or  couplers 
(Fig.  32/  and  g)  used  for 
the  forward  logs  where  the 
strain  is  greatest,  and  a 
single  grab  or  coupler  (Fig. 
32h),  for  the  rear  logs. 

A    metal-banded    wooden 
a   metal   maul    or    a 


GRAB  SKIPPER 


V 


GRAB  MAUL 

Fig.  34.  —  A  Type  of  Grab  Skipper  and   maul, 
a  Grab  Maul  used  on  a  West  Virginia  gledge    hammer  is  used   for 
Logging  Operation.  ^^-^-^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^  p^j^^^^ 

sledge  hammer,  called  a  "skipper,"  for  removing  them. 


HAND  LOGGING  AND  ANIALAI.  SNAKING 


153 


CREWS   AND    DAILY   OUTPUT 


In  the  northern  forests  a  crew  usually  has  two  or  three  teamsters, 
one  or  more  swampers  and  one  skidway  man.  One  or  more 
animals  are  driven  by  each  teamster. 


1200 
Distance-Feet 
By  permission  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


Fig.  35.  —  Graph  showing  the  Influence  of  Slope  on  the  Skidding  Output, 
Animal  Logging.     Inland  Empire. 


In  the  open  pine  forests  of  the  South  where  there  is  a  minimum 
of  trail  building,  one  or  more  teamsters  may  work  alone,  doing 
their  own  swamping  and  skidway  work.  The  usual  practice, 
however,  is  to  have  a  swamper  prepare  the  logs. 


154 


LOGGING 


In  West  Virginia  a  skidding  crew  often  has  two  teamsters, 
one  grab  driver,  one  road  monkey,  and  two  skidway  men.  Each 
teamster  drives  two  horses. 

The  daily  amount  of  work,  measured  in  thousand  board  feet, 
performed  by  a  team  depends  on  the  size  of  logs,  the  length 
of  haul,  the  character  of  bottom  and  the  grade.  The  size  of  log 
is  an  important  factor  because  small  logs  show  a  low  log  scale  in 


^^2400 


\                                                                               Stnti'l^"'' •i'^'  1"M    U    b   m                                     i  M  1 

:-l::_                                   Mihi     !  i  i  >  i  :  J  1 1 1  1  1  1  1  1  i  i  1  11 1  1  1  M  <  1  I    TTrH  1  M  1 

400 


600 


800  1000 

Distance-Feet 

By  permission  i 


1400    1500 


■  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
Fig.  36.  —  Graph  showing  the  Influence  on  Skidding  Output,  Animal  Log- 
ging, of  Summer  and  Winter  Conditions.     Inland  Empire. 

comparison  to  their  weight  and  while  several  may  be  skidded  at 
one  time,  their  total  scale  may  be  considerably  below  that  of  a 
single  log  that  can  be  handled  as  readily  and  in  less  time. 

The  number  of  logs  skidded  in  a  given  time  is  not  in  proportion 
to  the  distance.  Animals  when  once  in  motion  will  consume 
less  time  traveling  the  second  100  feet  than  they  did  the  first, 
provided  the  log  is  not  so  heavy  as  to  require  stops  every  few 
feet.  The  time  saved  on  the  shorter  haul  may  be  lost  very  easily 
at  the  skidway  or  at  the  stump.  A  soft  or  rough  bottom  or  one 
covered  with  large  roots,  stumps  and  other  obstructions  is  pro- 


HAND   LOGGING   AND   ANIMAL  SNAKING 


155 


hibitive  of  speed  and  cuts  down  the  daily  output.  Steep  grades 
increase  the  number  of  logs  and  the  volume  which  can  be  handled 
at  one  time  for  relatively  long  distances.  This  is  shown  in  Fig. 
35  in  which  a  comparison  is  made  of  the  gross  output  per  hour 
for  a  horse  team  on  slopes  ranging  from  10  to  25  per  cent,  and  on 
slopes  ranging  from  30  to  50  per  cent.^  The  graph  indicates  that 
the  output  per  hour  is  greater  on  the  gentler  slopes  for  distances 
not  exceeding  500  feet,  and  less  for  greater  distances.  This  is 
due  to  the  ability  of  the  horses  to  traverse  the  distance  from  stump 


600  800  1000  1200 

Distance-Feet 

By  permission  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  37.  —  Graph  showing  the  Effect  of  Slope  on  Skidding  Output,  Animal 
Logging,  under  Wmter  Conditions.     Inland  Empire. 

to  skid  way  on  the  more  gentle  slopes  in  a  shorter  time  than  on 
the  steep  slopes,  and  also  to  the  tendency  to  skid  maximum 
loads  on  steep  slopes  only  for  the  longer  distances.  Teamsters 
are  not  inclined  to  make  up  maximum  loads  for  short  distances 
and  on  the  operations  at  which  these  data  were  taken  the  average 
load  for  the  gentler  slopes  exceeded  those  on  the  steep  slope  up 
to  a  distance  of  500  feet. 

The  influence  of  the  character  of  the  bottom  on  the  skidding 
output  is  shown  in  Fig.  36  for  slopes  ranging  from  15  to  30  per 

1  From  data  contained  in  Inland  Empire  Sawing  and  Skidding  Studies, 
by  James  W.  Girard.     Timberman,  Sept.  1920,  pp.  36  to  38. 


156  LOGGING 

cent.  The  graph  indicates  that  the  gross  hour  output  on  bare 
ground  in  summer  is  greater  than  on  a  snow  bottom  of  from  10 
to  20  inches  for  distances  of  a  few  hundred  feet,  while  for  long  dis- 
tances a  snow  bottom  is  more  efficient.  Undoubtedly  this  is 
due  to  the  greater  effort  required  to  break  out  snow  trails  for 
the  short  distances  and  the  tendency  to  take  maximum  loads 
only  on  the  longer  hauls. 

The  effect  of  gradient  on  the  output  when  skidding  is  done  on 
a  snow  bottom  is  shown  in  Fig.  37.  This  graph  indicates  that 
the  gradient  has  less  influence  on  output  on  snow  bottom  than 
on  earth  bottom,  although  the  tendencies  are  similar.  The 
greater  efficiency  on  the  steeper  slopes  begins  at  about  the  same 
distance  as  for  summer  logging,  but  on  the  long  hauls  the  effect 
of  grade  on  output  is  less  with  snow  bottom  than  with  earth 
bottom.^ 

When  skidding  with  two  animals,  either  horses  or  mules,  and 
handling  timber  that  averages  from  six  to  nine  logs  per  thousand 
board  feet,  a  day's  work,  ten  hours,  ranges  between  10,000  and 
15,000  board  feet  for  distances  up  to  500  feet.  A  daily  average  of 
10,000  board  feet  during  a  month  is  considered  good.  For  a 
distance  of  750  feet  the  average  ranges  between  8000  and  12,000 
board  feet  and  for  1000  feet,  from  3000  to  4500  board  feet  log 
scale.  A  two-yoke  team  of  oxen  will  average  approximately 
the  same  number  of  board  feet  per  day  as  a  pair  of  mules  or 
horses. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO    CHAPTER   X 

GiRARD,  James  W. :  Inland  Empire  Sawing  and  Skidding  Studies.     Timber- 
man,  Sept.  1920,  pp.  36  to  38. 

Grainger,  M.  A.:   Woodsmen  of  the  West.     London,  E.  Arnold,  1908. 

Margolin,   Louis:    The   Hand  Loggers  of   British   Columbia/     Forestry 
Quarterly,  Vol.  IX,  No.  4,  pp.  562-567. 
1  See  Fig.  35. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SLEDS  AND   SLED-HAULING 


THE  GO-DEVIL 


A  sled  known  as  a  go-devil,  travois  or  crotch  is  used  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  during  the  summer  and  early- 
fall  and  sometimes  in  the  winter  to  supplement  snaking. 

The  go-devil  is  made  in  the  camp  blacksmith  shop  and  is 


Fig.  38.  —  A  Go-dcvil  loaded  with  Hardwood  Logs.     Michigan. 

a  rough  sled  having  two  unshod  hardwood  runners,  preferably 
of  yellow  birch,  hard  maple  or  beech,  selected  from  timbers  hav- 
ing a  natural  crook.  The  usual  type  of  runner  is  from  6  to  7^ 
feet  long,  6  inches  wide,  and  from  3  to  5  inches  thick.  A  6- 
by  6-inch  by  4-  or  5-foot  bunk  is  fastened  to  each  runner  by  a 
bolt.  The  bunk  is  placed  from  2  to  2^  feet  from  the  rear  end  of 
157 


158  LOGGING 

the  runners.  A  ring  is  attached  to  the  center  of  this  bunk  and 
the  logs  are  bound  on  the  latter  by  a  chain  passing  around  the 
logs  and  bunk  and  through  the  ring.  The  curved,  forward 
ends  of  the  runners  are  connected  by  a  roller  which  has  a  short 
chain  at  each  end  that  passes  through  a  hole  in  the  forward  end 
of  the  runner  and  is  fastened  several  inches  back  on  it.  Since 
the  go-devil  has  no  tongue  it  can  be  turned  around  in  a  small 
space.  The  draft  rigging  consists  of  chains  fastened  to  either 
side  of  the  bunk  or  to  the  runners.  The  chains  are  brought  for- 
ward and  joined  directly  in  front  of  the  roller  by  a  ring  to  which 
the  hook  on  the  double-tree  is  attached.  Go-devils  are  loosely 
constructed  to  permit  a  backward  and  forward  play  to  the  runners 
so  that  if  one  of  them  becomes  obstructed  the  other  moves  ahead 
and  starts  it. 

They  are  seldom  used  for  distances  less  than  300  feet,  except 
under  adverse  snaking  conditions.  They  may  be  used  for  a  j- 
mile  haul  on  snow  but  are  not  as  economical  as  larger  sleds  for 
this  distance.  Trails  are  required  and  these  are  cut  by  the 
swampers  as  they  prepare  the  logs  for  skidding. 

THE    LIZARD 

A  crude  form  of  sled  called  a  lizard  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
pine  forests  of  the  South  when  the  ground  becomes  too  soft  for 
wheels.  They  are  not  serviceable  on  very  muddy  ground  because 
the  nose  digs  too  deeply  into  the  soil. 

The  lizard  is  made  from  the  natural  fork  of  an  oak,  hewed  fiat 
on  the  upper  and  lower  sides,  with  an  upward  sweep  on  the 
forward  end  so  that  it  can  slide  over  obstructions  easily.  About 
two-thirds  of  the  distance  from  the  front  end  the  two  prongs  are 
spanned  by  a  bunk  bolted  solidly  to  them.  The  draft  chain  is 
fastened  to  this  bunk  and  also  passes  around  the  log  and  through 
a  hole  in  the  upturned  nose.  Lizards  are  made  in  the  camp 
blacksmith  shop. 

YARDING    SLEDS 

It  is  often  desirable  to  yard  or  skid  logs  for  distances  over  J- 
mile,  especially  when  the  amount  of  timber  does  not  warrant 
the  construction  of  a  two-sled  road,  or  the  haul  from  the  stump 
to  the  landing  or  to  the  railroad  does  not  exceed  1|  miles  and  the 
grade  is  favorable. 


SLEDS  AND   SLED-IL\ULING 


159 


Snaking  methods  and  go-devils  are  replaced  in  such  cases  by- 
yarding  sleds  or  drays  in  the  Northeast  and  by  a  "jumbo  dray" 
or  a  "bob"  in  the  Lake  States  and  the  Adirondack  mountains. 

The  yarding  sled  is  made  by  the  camp  blacksmith  and  has 
a  pair  of  yellow  birch  or  maple  runners,  7  feet  long,  3  inches 
wide  shod  with  f-inch  steel  shoes.  The  forward  ends  are 
curved  upward.     The  runners  are  held  together  by  a  bunk  8 


'.).  —  A  Yarding  Sled  used  in  the  Northeast. 


inches  square  and  4  or  5  feet  long,  placed  about  3  feet  from  the 
rear  end  of  the  sled.  In  order  to  facilitate  handling  the  sled  the 
bunk  is  made  in  two  parts;  namely,  a  lower  stationary  bar 
fastened  securely  to  the  runners  by  pins,  called  "starts,"  and 
braced  by  heavy  iron  straps  or  "raves,"  and  an  upper  bar  which 
is  temporarily  removed  when  the  sled  is  turned  around  in  the 
woods.  The  upper  bunk  has  grooves  cut  on  the  ends  or  on  the 
sides,  and  these  grooves  fit  around  the  starts,  which  are  mortised 
in  the  lower  bunk  and  fastened  to  the  runners. 

Several  logs  with  the  forward  ends  supported  on  the  bunk  and 
the  rear  ends  dragging  on  the  ground  can  be  hauled  on  a  yarding 
sled. 

Two  |-inch  chains  18  or  20  feet  long  are  used  to  fasten  the  logs 


160 


LOGGING 


to  the  bunk  of  the  sled.  Each  chain  has  a  grab  hook  on  one 
end  and  a  bunk  hook  on  the  other.  The  use  of  chains  in  binding 
logs  is  shown  in  Fig.  40.  A  third  chain  is  sometimes  used  to 
bind  the  rear  end  of  the  load. 

Two  horses  are  used  for  hauling  yarding  sleds,  except  on  long 
hauls  or  unfavorable  grades,  when  four  may  be  required.^ 

An  average  load  is  five  large  logs,  or  seven  or  eight  small  ones, 
the  total  averaging  from  700  to  1000  l^onrd  feet.  P%^_thiiiisarui 
board  feet  is  an  average  dnv's  work  for  n,  team  and  sled  ^^^  " 


A  system  of  re-yarding  is  sometimes  followed  on  very   steep 
slopes  up  which  it  is  difficult  to  haul  empty  yarding  sleds,  and 


WEAVERS  BIND 

Fig.  40.  —  Methods  of  fastening  Logs  to  the  Bunk  of  a  Yarding  Sled. 


down  which  it  is  difficult  to  control  loaded  ones.  The  logs  are 
snaked  to  the  foot  of  steep  slopes  and  hauled  to  the  main  skidways 
or  landings  on  yarding  sleds.  A  skidding  team  is  equipped  with 
150  feet  of  1-inch  manila  rope  to  one  end  of  which  a  grab  hook  is 
fastened.  The  logs  are  bunched  by  the  team  and  several  of  them 
are  bound  together  at  one  end  with  a  chain  and  the  draft  rig 
attached  to  it.  The  hook  on  the  rope  is  caught  in  the  binding 
chain  and  given  two  or  three  turns  around  a  nearby  tree  or  stump, 
and  the  team  started  down  hill.  The  teamster  handles  the  snub- 
bing line  and  controls  the  team  by  voice  only.  Horses  soon 
learn  that  the  snubbing  line  will  hold  back  the  load  and  they 

1  On  steep  down  grades  one  horse  is  sometimes  used  because  the  trails  can 
be  made  narrower  and  less  swamping  is  necessary. 


SLED   AND   SLED-HAULING  161 

will  go  down  a  very  steep  grade  without  a  driver.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  method,  as  compared  to  the  use  of  yarding  sleds, 
are  that  poorer  roads  may  be  used,  less  care  has  to  be  exercised 
in  felling,  difficult  "chances"  can  be  easily  logged  without  a  heavy 
strain  on  the  horses,  and  the  output  per  crew  can  be  increased 
from  50  to  100  per  cent  over  that  possible  when  yarding  sleds 
are  used  under  similar  conditions. 

THE    BOB 

In  the  Lake  States  and  in  the  Adirondacks  a  "bob"  is  used 
in  the  place  of  a  yarding  sled.  It  has  the  front  runners  of  a  "two- 
sled,"  equipped  with  chains  for  binding  on  the  logs.  It  is  adapted 
for  hauls  under  f  mile  when  the  distance  is  too  great  for  snaking. 
From  ten  to  sixteen  logs  may  be  hauled  at  one  time  on  favor- 
able grades. 

THE  "jumbo" 

The  jumbo,  a  modification  of  the  go-devil,  is  used  on  a  snow 
haul  in  the  Lake  States,  for  distances  not  exceeding  |-mile,  where 
the  conditions  do  not  warrant  the  use  of  heavy  sleds.  They 
are  often  used  to  haul  timber  out  of  swamps  on  roughly  built, 
snow  roads.  When  necessary  the  wettest  places  are  corduro3^ed 
with  hemlock  or  balsam  brush.  Jumbo  sleds  have  the  same  loose 
jack-knife  construction  as  go-devils.  The  runners,  however,  are 
8  feet  long  and  have  a  gauge  of  6|  or  7  feet.  The  forward  and 
rear  sleds  are  joined  together  by  cross  chains  fastened  to  the  bunks, 
which  are  spaced  from  8  to  9  feet  apart.     X^  avpmgp  Inarl  fay 

a  jiirnbn  rRn|j;ps  from    1000  tn  1900  hnarrl  fppt^  frnm   !\  in  90  j^^o-p 

"Hemg  campd  nt.-Q.no  tur>^ — Thp  slpdf^  are  loaded  by  means  of^ 
a  crossliaul.  Roads  must  be  cut  out,  stumps  removed  and  swamps 
rnrchrrnjpA^  but  tliP  ''^^t  ^^  ^^^'^^  pnngfrnpfif^n  is  much  less  than 
Tortwo-sledS;___ 

TllE   TWO-SLED 

The  transportation  of  logs  from  the  skidway  to  a  landing  on 
streams,  to  a  railroad  or  to  a  mill  often  is  effected  by  means  of 
a  heavy  sled  called  the  "two-sled,"  "twin-sled"  or  "wagon- 
sled."  There  is  no  standard  type  of  two-sled  even  in  a  given 
region.  Many  sleds  are  made  in  the  blacksmith  shop  of  the  log- 
ging camp  in  accordance  with  the  ideas  of  the  logging  foreman. 
The  gauge  of  sleds  varies  from  3|  feet  on  some  operations  in 


162 


LOGGING 


Eastern  Canada  to  8  feet  on  others  in  the  Lake  States.  The 
choice  appears  to  rest  on  the  size  of  loads  to  be  hauled,  the  form 
of  draft  power  used,  and  the  preferences  of  the  foreman  in  charge. 
Wide-gauge  sleds  are  used  exclusivel}^  when  some  form  of  power 
draft  is  used,  since  the  sleds  are  made  larger  and  heavier  in  order 
to  carry  maximum  loads.     Many  loggers  also   prefer  a  wide- 


fhotograph  by  E.  B.  Mason. 

Fig.  41.  —  A  Loaded  Two-sled  showing  the  Binding  Chains  and  a  Potter 
(on  the  left).     New  Hampshire. 


gauge  sled  when  animals  are  used  for  sled  hauling  because  the 
animals  then  do  not  travel  in  the  sled  runner  tracks  and,  therefore, 
do  not  deposit  manure  on  it,  a  matter  of  great  importance  on  an 
iced  road,  since  manure  will  cause  the  ice  to  melt  rapidly  on 
bright  days.  More  road-monkey  work  is  required  on  a  narrow- 
gauge  sled  road  to  keep  the  track  clean,  than  on  a  wide  gauge, 
since  the  manure  must  be  shoveled  off. 

The  length  of  runners  varies  from  8|  to  12  feet  and  the  width 
from  4  to  6  inches.  Some  runners  are  made  square  and  others 
rectangular  and  they  may  be  shod  either  with  a  rectangular- 
shaped  steel  shoe  or  with  the  more  common  type  of  semi-circular 


SLEDS  AND   SLED-HAULING  163 

one.  Bunks  range  in  length  from  8  feet,  on  small  sleds,  to  16 
feet  on  the  widest  gauge  ones,  although  10  feet  is  the  average 
length  in  use  in  the  Northeast  and  12  feet  in  the  Lake  States. 

A  sled  used  on  a  Maine  operation  had  runners  10^  feet  long, 
4  inches  broad,  7  inches  high,  which  were  shod  with  flat  4-inch 
steel  shoes.  The  gauge  was  5^  feet.  The  runners  were  braced 
near  the  center  by  a  transverse  timber  called  a  bar,  which  was 
fastened  to  them  by  a  wrought-iron  casting,  called  a  ''dexter" 
or  "sled  knee."  A  10-foot  bunk  was  placed  over  the  bar  on  the 
rear  runners  and  a  10-foot  rocker  on  the  bar  of  the  forward  sled. 
This  rocker  turned  around  a  king-pin  that  passed  through  it 
and  the  bar.  The  forward  runners  also  were  strengthened  by 
a  flat  roller  rounded  on  the  ends  and  fitted  in  circular  holes  in 
the  sled  noses.  To  this  roller  the  sled  tongue  was  mortised. 
When  two  teams  were  used  for  hauling  a  sled,  a  false  tongue  was 
slung  on  rings  under  the  main  pole,  projecting  ahead  far  enough 
to  accommodate  the  forward  pair  of  horses.  This  pole  enabled  the 
lead  team  to  assist  in  steering  the  sled.  The  rear  runners  were 
similar  to  the  forward  pair,  with  the  omission  of  the  tongue  and 
rocker.  Two-sleds  are  made  from  well-seasoned  oak,  maple  or 
birch.  The  woodwork  on  a  sled  lasts  from  three  to  four  seasons 
but  the  runner  shoes  must  be  renewed  annually  or  biennially. 

The  front  and  rear  sleds  are  often  joined  by  two  ^-  or  |-inch 
chains  attached  to  the  back  side  of  the  forward  bunk,  directly 
over  the  runners,  then  crossed  and  attached  to  the  noses  of  the 
rear  runners.  The  length  of  the  chains  is  adjustable  so  as  to 
adapt  the  distance  between  the  forward  and  rear  bunks  to  the 
length  of  logs  being  hauled.  On  rough  roads,  when  light 
sleds  are  used,  and  when  logs  of  medium  and  fairly  uniform  length 
are  being  hauled,  the  cross  chains  may  be  replaced  by  a  "goose- 
neck," which  is  a  V-shaped  pair  of  thills.  They  have  a  hook  on 
the  apex  by  which  they  are  attached  to  a  ring  on  the  back  side  of 
the  forward  bunk  and  the  divergent  ends  of  the  goose-neck  are 
fastened  to  the  roller  ends  of  the  rear  sled.  The  length  of  the 
goose-neck  is  from  16  to  18  feet,  which  gives  a  distance  of  21  or 
23  feet  between  the  rear  bunk  and  the  forward  rocker.  When 
the  empty  sled  is  ready  to  return  from  the  landing  to  the  skidway, 
it  is  customary  to  unhook  the  goose-neck,  turn  it  back  on  the 
rear  pair  of  runners  and  couple  the  sleds  closely  together  by  means 
of  cross  chains. 


164 


LOGGING 


SLED    ROADS 

Yarding  Sled  Roads.  —  Roads  for  yarding  sleds  are  laid  out  by 
the  camp  foreman.  Several  main  roads  diverge  from  the  skid- 
ways  generally  going  up  the  slopes  and,  from  these,  branch 
roads  are  built  directly  to  the  logs. 

Main  roads  are  built  5  or  6  feet  wide,  stumps  are  cut  level  with 
the  grade  and  all  brush,  fallen  timber  and  boulders  cleared  away. 
The  road  is  roughly  graded,  holes  and  depressions  are  filled  with 
brush  or  dirt,  streams  are  spanned  with  crib  bridges,  swamps  are 


Fig.  42. 


Yarding-sled  Trails  leading  down  to  a  Skidway  on  a 
Two-sled  Road.     Maine. 


corduroyed  and,  if  necessary,  cross-skids  are  placed  across  the 
road  at  intervals  of  from  10  to  20  feet  to  prevent  the  runners  from 
cutting  up  the  road.  Side-skids  also  may  be  placed  along  the 
lower  side  of  the  road  to  prevent  the  sleds  from  leaving  it.  On 
side  slopes,  the  outer  edge  of  the  road  may  be  built  up  by  laying 
skids  parallel  to  the  road  and  then  placing  short  skids,  2  or  3 
feet  apart  across  them.  This  crowds  the  sled  towards  the  bank. 
Main  yarding  roads  are  built  by  a  special  road  crew.  The 
secondary  roads  are  laid  out  and  constructed  by  the  swampers 
while  preparing  the  logs  for  skidding.  Easy  grades  are  de- 
sirable both  for  main  and  secondary  roads,  but  are  not  essential 


SLEDS  AND   SLED-HAULING 


165 


because   the   speed   of   loaded   sleds   can   be   checked  on  steep 
pitches  by  a  "snub-line"^  or  a  "bridle." 

A  bridle  is  a  chain  passed  around  a  runner  in  front  of  the  bunk. 
It  is  put  on  and  removed  as  circumstances  demand.  A  clevis 
attached  under  the  forward  part  of  a  runner  sometimes  replaces 
it.  Bridles  can  only  be  used  on  smooth  ground,  otherwise  the 
chains  catch  on  roots  and  other  obstructions  and  stop  the  sled. 
Tail  chains,  which  bind  together  the  rear  end  of  the  load,  also 
act  as  impediments  and  assist  in  the  control  of  the  sleds.  Aided 
by  any  of  these  devices,  teams  can  go  down  slopes  loaded,  up 
which  they  cannot  return  with  an  empty  sled.^ 


Fig.  43.  —  A  Yarding-sled  Road  built  up  on  a  Curve  to  prevent  the  Sleds 
from  leaving  the  Road.     Maine. 


Two-sled  Roads.  —  The  road  system  for  an  operation  on  which 
the  logs  are  to  be  transported  on  two-sleds,  comprises  a  main 
road  over  which  all  the  traffic  passes  to  the  landing,  and  second- 
ary roads  which  radiate  from  it  to  the  skid  ways.  The  roads  are 
laid  out  by  the  camp  foreman  often  without  the  aid  of  survey- 
ing instruments,  although  in  recent  years,  progressive  woodsmen 
have  adopted  a  hand  level  for  the  determination  of  grades. 

The  main  road  location  is  the  more  important  because  it  is  the 
route  over  which  fully  loaded  sleds  pass.     These  roads  often 

1  See  Fig.  48. 

2  The  general  scheme  of  roads  is  shown  in  Fig.  42. 


166  LOGGING 

follow  the  valley  of  some  stream  from  the  woods  operation  to 
the  landing,  crossing  and  re-crossing  the  water-course  as  often  as 
necessary  to  maintain  the  desired  grade.  A  minimum  number  of 
bridges  is  desirable  because  they  are  expensive  to  construct  and 
to  maintain.  In  order  that  logs  can  be  hauled  on  a  down  grade 
from  the  secondary  roads  to  the  main  road,  the  latter  should 
be  located  on  the  lower  levels  of  the  tract. 

A  main  road  of  easy  descending  grades  is  preferred  because 
on  grades  in  excess  of  5  per  cent,  heavy  loads  gain  too  much 
headway  and  it  is  necessary  to  place  hay,  straw,  gravel,  sand  or 
brush  on  the  road  to  check  the  speed.  It  is  more  satisfactory 
and  often  cheaper  in  the  end  to  make  cuts  or  to  detour  ascending 
grades  rather  than  to  return  by  them. 

Dead-level  pulls  should  be  avoided  because  more  power  is 
required  to  move  loads  on  such  places  than  on  gentl}^  descend- 
ing grades.  Sharp  curves  are  especially  dangerous  at  the  foot 
of  steep  pitches  because  the  load  cannot  be  held  in  check  by  the 
animals  and  the  sled  is  apt  to  leave  the  road  under  the  momentum 
attained. 

Turnouts  are  provided  at  the  end  of  long,  straight  stretches 
on  low-grade  roads,  while  on  steep  mountain  roads  a  "go-back" 
road  is  built  over  which  the  empty  sleds  return. 

Secondary  roads  are  inferior  in  construction  to  the  main  ones 
because  they  may  be  used  for  one  season  only,  and  a  small  amount 
of  timber  is  brought  out  over  them.  They  are  seldom  iced  and, 
therefore,  the  bottom  does  not  have  to  be  made  as  smooth  as 
for  rut  roads. 

Fewer  roads  can  be  used  in  a  rough  or  rolling  region  thaji  in  a 
flat  country  because  the  downgrade  permits  skidding  for  longer 
distances. 

Two-sled  roads  should  be  built  during  the  summer  or  early 
fall  before  the  ground  freezes  and  snow  falls.  The  days  are 
then  long  and  the  unfrozen  earth  can  be  handled  to  best  advan- 
tage. On  new  operations,  road  work  follows  camp  construction, 
while  on  other  operations  the  roadmen  come  in  a  short  time  in 
advance  of  the  regular  camp  crew,  or  simultaneous  with  it. 
It  often  is  necessary,  however,  to  construct  a  tote  road,  from 
the  base  of  supplies  to  the  camp  site,  previous  to  the  construction 
of  the  camp.  Roadmen  are  chosen  from  the  less  efficient  workers 
in  camp,  because  in  such  work  little  skill  is  required. 


SLEDS   AND   SLED-HAULING  167 

The  right-of-way  having  been  blazed  out  by  the  camp  fore- 
man, the  ''road-monkeys,"  as  the  men  are  called,  proceed  to 
fell  a  strip  of  timber  from  20  to  30  feet  wide  along  the  proposed 
route.  The  merchantable  timber  is  cut  into  saw  logs  which 
may  be  left  at  one  side  of  the  road,  or  skidded  to  the  nearest 
skidway  site.  If  the  road  is  to  have  a  snow  bottom,  the  depressions 
are  filled  with  rotten  logs  and  sound  non-merchantable  species. 
The  latter  are  also  used  for  corduroy,  bridge  construction  and  skids. 
Large  stumps  are  sawed  level  with  the  ground;  boulders  are 
removed  or  the  road  level  around  them  raised  by  skids;  and 


Fig.  44.  —  A  Two-sled  Road,  showing  tlie  Method  of  building  vi])  tlir  Grade 
on  Slide  Slope.s. 

cuts  are  made  to  reduce  heavy  grades.  Snow  roads  often  pre- 
sent a  rough  appearance  before  snow  falls,  because  of  the  uneven 
nature  of  the  roadbed,  but  the  first  heavy  snow  fills  the  depres- 
sions and  smoothes  off  the  road  making  a  solid  bed  over  which 
the  sleds  may  pass. 

-Swamps  containing  live  springs  are  a  source  of  annoyance  when 
the  road  must  pass  over  them,  because  they  are  the  last  part  of 
the  road  to  freeze  over  in  the  fall  and  the  first  part  to  thaw  in 
the  early  spring,  and  should  l^e  avoided  when  practicable.  When 
the  road  crosses  low  marshy  ground  or  swamps,  corduroy  is  used 
which  gives  a  broad  bearing  surface  to  the  road  and  prevents 


168  LOGGING 

the  sled  runners  from  sinking  into  the  mud.  An  average  day's 
work  for  one  man  is  to  cut  poles  for  and  build  from  6  to  8  rods 
of  corduroy. 

When  roads  are  built  on  side  slopes,  the  upper  side  is  cut  down 
and  the  lower  side  raised,  by  laying  long  skids  parallel  to  the 
outer  edge  of  the  road  and  placing  short  .transverse  skids  on 
them.  The  space  between  the  skids  may  be  filled  with  brush, 
or  left  vacant  and  snow  allowed  to  fill  the  interstices.  On  roads 
where  the  traffic  is  heavy  the  slope  is  either  cut  down  enough 
to  make  a  solid  roadway,  or  else  an  abutment  of  logs  is  built 
on  the  low  side. 

Roads  which  are  to  be  iced  must  be  more  carefully  graded  than 
snow  roads  because  a  solid  base  is  required  to  support  the  ice 
coating,  otherwise  it  will  break  up  under  heavy  loads.  Stumps, 
rocks,  and  other  obstructions  in  the  line  of  ruts,  also  interfere  with 
the  operation  of  the  rut  cutter.  An  iced  road,  therefore,  must  be 
carefully  graded,  stumps  grubbed  or  blasted,  rocks  removed  and 
low  spots  filled  with  earth.  The  appearance  of  the  roadbed 
previous  to  the  fall  of  snow  should  be  comparatively  smooth. 
The  additional  cost  of  the  roadbed  for  an  iced  road  as  compared 
to  a  snow  road  may  be  100  per  cent  or  more.  However  they  are 
more  efficient  on  long  hauls  since  heavier  loads  can  be  moved 
than  on  snow  roads.  Two  general  types  of  iced  roads  are  used, 
namely,  the  rut  road  and  the  trough  road.  The  former  represents 
the  earliest  type  of  iced  road  used  in  the  United  States,  and  it 
was  probably  first  developed  in  the  Lake  States.  On  the  early 
roads  the  ruts  were  cut  with  an  ax,  but  this  method  was  soon 
abandoned  since  a  rut  cutter^  makes  a  smoother  channel  and  the 
cost  of  the  road  is  less. 

The  advantages  of  a  rut  road  over  a  snow  road  is  that  the  fric- 
tional  resistance  is  reduced  and  the  rut  serves  to  hold  the  sled  in  place 
on  the  road,  thus  preventing  the  runners  from  sluing.  Rut 
roads  require  more  attention  for  maintenance  than  snow  roads 
because  they  must  be  kept  free  from  manure;  sprinkled  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  often  daily;  and  the  ruts  may  have  to  be  cut 
out  two  or  more  times  per  week.  In  the  Lake  States  ruts  often 
are  cut  in  the  soil,  which  gives  a  solid  bed.  It  cannot  be  done 
successfully^  in  stony  soil,  however,  so  that  in  many  regions  the 
ruts  are  cut  in  the  snow  and  later  built  up  with  ice.  The  first 
1  See  Fig.  46. 


SLEDS  AND   SLED-HAULING  169 

mentioned  practice  gives  the  best  results,  since  the  ruts  will  stand 
up  under  heavier  loads.  Ruts  are  cut  from  3  to  6  inches  deep  and 
are  made  somewhat  wider  than  the  thickness  of  the  runner. 
The  bottom  of  the  rut  may  be  square  or  concave  depending  on  the 
shape  of  the  runner  shoe.  The  trough  road  has  a  smooth  ice 
bottom  with  sloping  ice  wings.  It  is  built  up  to  a  depth  of  several 
inches  by  frequent  applications  of  water  and  it  is  then  sheared 
off  with  a  steel  snow  plow  which  gives  a  level  ice  bottom  without 
ruts.  The  advantages  claimed  for  this  type  of  road  are  that 
it  provides  easier  draft  on  short  hauls,  and  that  the  solid  ice  bed 
makes  a  more  permanent  road  during  the  warm  winter  weather 
which  may  occur  near  the  close  of  the  hauling  season.  These 
merits  are  not  conceded  by  all  loggers,  however.  Trough  roads 
usually  are  made  for  a  gauge  of  6  feet  or  less.  This  necessitates 
the  use  of  a  narrow-gauge  sled,  with  overhanging  bunks  which  are 
more  troublesome  at  landings  than  those  on  broader  gauge  sleds. 
Further  disadvantages  of  the  trough  road  are  that  the  horses 
travel  on  ice  and  in  the  runner  track,  which  necessitates  the 
constant  removal  of  manure;  the  road,  unless  plowed  frequently, 
is  built  up  and  then  tends  to  break  down  on  the  sides  under  heavy 
loads;  much  more  water  is  required  than  for  rut  roads;  more 
labor  is  required  for  maintenance;  and  on  long  hauls  the  capacity 
is  no  greater  than  for  a  rut  road. 

Streams  and  dry  watercourses  are  bridged  with  structures 
made  from  round  timbers.  Bridges  are  the  first  part  of  a  sled 
road  to  weaken.  They  should  be  built  on  a  slight  downgrade, 
if  possible,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  loaded  sleds.  The 
usual  type  is  one  the  floor  of  which  is  supported  on  parallel 
stringers,  from  12  to  15  inches  in  diameter  resting  on  abutments  and 
piers  which  are  made  of  logs  from  12  to  18  inches  in  diameter, 
built  in  crib-fashion.  The  piers  are  10  or  12  feet  square  and  are 
commonly  placed  from  12  to  16  feet  apart,  and  filled  with  stone 
to  give  them  stability.  The  floor  is  made  of  skids  from  6  to  10 
inches  in  diameter,  placed  across  the  stringers  close  enough  to 
form  a  solid  roadbed,  and  on  these  a  thick  covering  of  bark  is 
spread  to  hold  the  snow,  and  prevent  the  sled  track  from  break- 
ing up  when  the  load  passes  over  it.  The  skids  are  held  in  place 
by  stringers  which  are  laid  on  top  of  them,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  bridge. 

Piers  are  not  adapted  to  use  in  a  stream  bed,  because  freshets 


170 


LOGGING 


^! 


are  apt  to  carry  them  away.  Under  such  circumstances  or  where 
the  bridge  crosses  a  wide  stream  the  cribs  are  placed  from  20  to 
25  feet  apart  and  the  stringers  are  supported  between  them  by 
piles  driven  to  bed  rock  at  intervals  of  8  or  10  feet. 

When  the  stream  is  too  wide  for  a  single  span,  the  cribs  may 
be  built  in  the  water,  heavily  loaded  with  stone  and  provided 
with  a  "rake"  on  the  up-stream  face  to  divert  refuse  and  ice  to 


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bS^zrJ*'**^ '-^ 

'   '"'../" "':^^' 4**^ 

B 

■'       A 

Fig.  45.  —  A  Snow  Shed  on  a  Two-sled  Road.     Coniferous  bru.sh  is  placed 
against  the  framework  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  .snow.     Maine. 


either  side  of  the  crib.  When  there  are  long  spans  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  five  stringers.  Deep  depressions  often  are  filled 
with  cribbing  built  up  to  grade  level. 

On  roads  where  the  snow  drifts  badly  snowsheds  are  occa- 
sionally built  in  order  to  keep  the  road  open  with  a  minimum  of 
hand  shoveling.  They  also  are  used  on  steep  pitches  to  keep 
the  ground  free  from  snow,  so  that  the  speed  of  sleds  can  be 
controlled.    Snowsheds  are  built  in  several  different  forms  one 


k 


SLEDS  AND  SLED-HAULING  171 

of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  45.  The  framework  is  constructed 
of  poles  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter  and  heavy  brush  is  placed  on 
the  sides  and  roof  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  snow.  The  height 
and  width  of  the  sheds  is  dependent  on  the  size  of  the  sleds  and 
the  maximum  height  of  loads  hauled. 

Screens  built  from  tops  and  Imibs  sometimes  are  placed  along 
the  windward  side  of  a  road  to  protect  it  against  drifting  snow. 
A  fringe  of  trees  also  may  be  left  along  exposed  portions  of  the 
road,  this  timber  being  cut  during  the  last  season  the  road  is 
used. 

Two-sled  snow  roads  require  at  least  from  8  to  12  inches  of 
snow  for  successful  operation  and  in  the  Lake  States  and  the 
Northeast  conditions  are  seldom  favorable  for  their  use  until  the 
middle  or  latter  part  of  December.  Hauling  begins  at  this  time 
and  continues  without  interruption  until  all  of  the  logs  are  on  the 
landing,  or  until  the  season  breaks  up  and  the  snow  leaves  the 
roads. 

Snowplows  play  an  important  part  in  the  maintenance  of  a 
main  two-sled  road.  They  are  frequently  made  by  the  camp 
blacksmith,  but  also  are  sold  by  dealers  in  logging  supplies. 

Plows  are  used  after  each  snowfall  to  clear  a  right-of-way  along 
the  road  wide  enough  to  permit  loaded  sleds  to  pass.  They 
are  built  in  several  patterns,  a  common  one  having  V-shaped 
flaring  sides  from  2  to  4  feet  high,  which  are  bolted  to  a  heavy 
pair  of  runners.  The  plow  is  drawn  by  from  six  to  sixteen  horses, 
depending  on  the  depth  of  snow  and  the  width  of  road  being  cleared. 
Plows  also  are  made  from  two  split  logs  or  heavy  sawed  timbers 
about  16  feet  long  which  are  joined  together  at  the  apex  of  the 
triangle  by  means  of  a  chain  which  passes  through  holes  in  the 
forward  end  of  the  logs  at  which  point  the  draft  power  is  attached- 
The  angle  between  the  sides  may  be  regulated  by  means  of  cross 
bars,  which  are  fitted  into  notches  cut  into  the  inner  face  of  the 
logs  or  timbers.  Such  snowplows  are  made  reversible  in  order 
to  facilitate  a  change  in  the  direction  of  travel.  The  chain  hold- 
ing together  the  forward  ends  of  the  logs  at  the  apex  of  the  triangle 
is  removed,  the  rear  ends  of  the  logs  are  then  brought  together 
and  fastened  with  the  chain,  and  the  point  of  draft  attachment 
is  then  reversed.  This  scheme  is  especially  useful  since  it  often 
is  difficult  to  turn  around  such  a  snow  plow,  owing  to  its  unwieldy 
character.     Special  care  is  necessary  when  roads  cross  lakes  or 


172  LOGGING 

ponds  that  have  become  covered  with  a  blanket  of  snow  before 
the  ice  has  reached  a  thickness  to  hold  up  heavy  loads.  It  is 
the  custom  to  plow  the  snow  from  the  ice  for  a  distance  of  40  or 
50  feet  on  either  side  of  the  main  road  and  to  keep  the  ice  uncovered 
until  it  has  reached  a  satisfactory  depth.  If  this  is  not  done  the 
road  may  remain  in  a  dangerous  condition  throughout  the  winter. 
The  maintenance  of  iced  roads  requires  rut  cutters  and  sprink- 
lers, in  addition  to  snow  plows.  The  rutter  is  a  machine  mounted 
on  a  hea\y  set  of  runners  which  has  two  chisel-like  cutting  Ijlades, 
either  fiat  or  concave,  which  may  be  raised  or  lowered  so  that  a 


i 


Fig.  46.  —  The  Badger  Rut  Cutter  (side  view). 

rut  of  any  desired  depth  can  be  secured.  Snowplows  and  rut 
cutters  often  are  combined  in  one  machine  especially  in  those 
patterns  offered  by  logging  supply  houses. 

Long  hauls,  ascending  grades  and  long,  level  stretches  are 
iced  so  that  larger  loads  can  be  hauled.  A  road  on  which  four 
or  more  trips  can  be  made  daily  is  seldom  iced  unless  a  large 
amount  of  timber  is  to  be  hauled  over  it.  Descending  grades  and 
secondary  roads  are  not  iced. 

The  sprinkler  is  a  rectangular  tank  built  of  dressed  and  matched 
plank,  and  mounted  on  a  heavy  pair  of  sleds.  It  holds  from  30 
to  80  barrels  of  water,  which  will  sprinkle  from  j  to  f  of  a  mile 
of  road.  In  one  type  a  short  piece  of  1-inch  iron  pipe  is  fitted 
into  each  of  the  rear  lower  corners  of  the  tank  directly  over 
the  sled  ruts.  An  overhanging  piece  of  sheet  iron  is  attached  so 
that  it  hangs  over  the  opening  in  the  pipes  and,  when  the  wooden 
plugs  are  pulled  out  of  the  latter,  the  water  plays  on  this  sheet 
and  throws  a  spray  over  the  rut,  which  on  freezing  makes  a  solid 
ice  coating.     Another  type  of  sprinkler  has  the  openings  in  the 


SLEDS   AND   SLED-HAULING  173 

bottom  of  the  tank  in  front  of  the  rear  sled  runners.  This  is 
considered  a  better  method  since  the  runner  tends  to  shape  the 
rut  and  prevents  water  from  collecting  in  low  spots  and  filling 
up  the  ruts  with  solid  ice.  A  scheme  tried  some  twenty  years 
ago  as  a  substitute  for  the  sprinkler,  was  a  steam  boiler  mounted 
on  a  sled,  with  pipes  which  discharged  steam  in  the  runners, 
thus  melting  the  snow  and  ice  which  on  freezing  would  coat  the 
rut  with  ice.  So  far  as  known  this  system  was  not  adopted, 
although  it  was  tried  out  both  in  the  Lake  States  and  in  the 
Northeast.  A  water  heater,  a  round  wrought  steel  tube  18  inches 
in  diameter  equipped  with  a  smoke  and  a  fire  door,  is  sometimes 
placed  in  the  tank.  A  fire  built  in  it  prevents  the  water  from  freez- 
ing. Sprinklers  may  be  filled  by  gravity  from  a  spring  or  brook, 
by  water  drawn  up  in  a  barrel  by  means  of  a  cable  and  horse 
draft,  or  by  a  steam  pump. 

The  rutting  and  sprinkling  are  done  by  a  special  crew  who 
usually  operate  at  night  and  whose  sole  duty  is  to  keep  the  road 
in  shape  for  hauling.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  in  addition 
to  such  men  as  are  required  continually  at  points  where  grades 
must  be  sanded,  or  snubbing  devices  operated,  one  man  can 
keep  2  miles  of  main  road  in  repair.  One  four-horse  team  and 
two  men  can  operate  the  sprinkler  on  from  4  to  6  miles  of  road. 
Shoveling  out  deep  drifts  after  storms;  banking  and  skidding  up 
roads  on  side  hills,  where  the  sleds  slue  to  one  side;  keeping  a  snow 
covering  on  bridges;  shaping  ruts  on  iced  roads  by  cutting  them 
out  with  an  ax;  filling  in  low  spots  on  the  road  with  snow,  brush 
or  other  material;  and  shoveling  manure  off  of  the  iced  roads 
may  be  necessary  to  maintain  a  two-sled  road. 

After  one  season's  work  a  road  requires  a  general  overhauling  to 
prepare  it  for  the  next  winter's  use.  This  work  is  done  early 
in  the  fall  at  the  time  road  building  begins.  Bridges  are  strength- 
ened when  necessary,  the  roadbed  built  up  on  slopes  where 
weaknesses  have  become  apparent,  sags  occasioned  by  the  last 
winter's  haul  are  filled,  and  any  general  improvements  made  that 
the  previous  season's  work  have  shown  to  be  advisable,  such  as 
the  elimination  of  undesirable  curves  and  grades. 

Operation.  —  The  practice  followed  in  preparing  a  main  two- 
sled  road  for  hauling  varies  on  different  operations.  Preparation 
of  a  snow  road  often  begins  two  or  three  weeks  previous  to  haul- 
ing, when  a  crew  goes  over  the  road  filling  in  soft  places  and  cut- 


174  LOGGING 

ting  out  windfalls  which  may  have  dropped  across  the  road.  A 
forward  pair  of  two-sled  runners  is  then  loaded  with  two  small 
logs  whose  rear  ends  are  allowed  to  drag  on  the  road  where  the 
horses  travel.  Several  loads  of  this  character  are  hauled  to  the 
landing,  followed  by  heavier  loads  again  dragged  on  the  same 
sled.  When  the  road  is  thoroughly  packed,  a  few  light  two-sled 
loads  are  hauled  over  the  road  after  each  snowfall. 

Previous  to  hauling,  the  roads  past  the  skidways  are  broken 
out  by  a  snowplow  and  if  necessary  by  shoveling.  Then  an 
empty  or  lightly  loaded  sled  is  drawn  over  the  road  to 
break  a  track.  The  snow  on  the  skidways  is  shoveled  off  and 
the  empty  sleds  drawn  by  two  or  four  horses  are  ranged  along- 
side for  loading.  Logs  are  sometimes  frozen  so  solidly  that  they 
cannot  be  loosened  by  hand  and  a  small  charge  of  dynamite 
must  be  exploded  in  the  pile.  On  steep  mountain  roads  it  is 
customary  to  place  partial  loads  on  the  sleds  at  the  upper  skid- 
ways and  "top-out"  the  loads  from  skidways  on  the  lower  levels. 

Sleds  may  be  loaded  by  hand,  by  the  crosshaul  or  by  power 
loaders.  Hand  loading  is  used  where  the  logs  are  not  large.  It 
is  a  common  method  in  the  spruce  forests  of  the  Northeast.  Two 
skids  are  placed  so  that  they  span  the  interval  between  the  crib- 
work  of  the  skidway  and  the  sled  bunks  and  the  logs  are  rolled 
over  the  skids  by  the  loaders.  As  the  load  is  built  up,  the  skids 
are  raised  and  placed  on  top  of  each  succeeding  tier  of  logs. 
Large  logs  are  loaded  with  a  team  and  crosshaul  unless  the 
skidways  are  higher  than  the  sled  bunks. 

Horse  loaders  or  "jammers"  are  frequently  used  in  the  Lake 
States.  These  have  a  derrick  and  swinging  boom  mounted 
on  a  heavy  sled,  equipped  with  hoisting  blocks  and  tackle.  The 
jammer  is  drawn  from  one  skidway  to  another  by  a  team,  and  is 
placed  directly  behind  the  sleds  to  be  loaded  with  the  boom  so 
placed  that  logs  may  be  gripped  on  the  skidway  with  tackle, 
elevated  and  transferred  to  the  sleds.  Power  for  hoisting  is 
furnished  by  the  team  which  transports  the  jammer. 

Power  loaders  are  occasionally  used  in  the  Lake  States.  They 
are  mounted  on  sleds  and  have  a  stiff  boom  and  a  hoisting  en- 
gine driven  either  by  steam  or  gasoline.  They  are  transported 
from  one  skidway  to  another  by  animals. 

Logs  are  bound  on  the  sleds  by  chains.  For  high  loads,  oper- 
ators use  a  set  of  ten  chains.     Four  ^-inch  short  bunk  or  corner 


SLEDS   AND   SLED-HAULING 


175 


bind  chains  are  used  to  bind  the  two  outer  logs  of  the  bottom 
tier  to  the  rear  bunk  and  the  rocker.  Four  f-inch  "deck  chains" 
are  used  to  bind  the  load,  one  pair  being  used  to  hold  the  load 
after  the  second  tier  of  logs  has  been  put  on,  and  the  other  pair, 
after  the  fourth  tier  has  been  loaded.  Each  deck  chain  has  two 
parts,  one  part  being  24  feet  long  with  one  end  fastened  to  a  ring 
on  one  side  of  the  rocker  or  bunk,  and  the  other  part  being  2  feet 
in  length  and  attached  to  the  rocker  or  bunk  on  the  end 
opposite  the  long  chain.  The  short  chain  has  a  ring  on  the  end 
and  a  secondary  chain  with  a  grab  hook  attached  is  fastened  to 


Photograph  hy  H.  De  Forest. 
Fig.  47.  —  A  Sprinkler  being  filled  with  Water  from  a  Brook.     Adirondacks. 

it.  Two  f-inch  wrapper  chains  each  about  40  feet  long,  which 
have  a  ring  or  bunk  hook  on  one  end  and  a  grab  hook  on  the 
other,  are  passed  around  the  completed  load,  but  are  not  attached 
to  the  sled. 

When  large  loads  are  hauled,  a  "potter"  is  sometimes  used 
as  an  aid  in  loading.  This  is  a  round  stick  3  or  4  inches  in 
diameter  and  2^  or  3  feet  long,  around  the  center  of  which  is 
fitted  an  iron  clasp  to  which  is  fastened  a  short  piece  of  chain 
with  a  hook  on  the  free  end.  When  two  pairs  of  deck  chains 
are  used,  eight  potters  may  be  employed,  four  on  each  side 
of  the  load.  After  the  deck  chains  are  placed  on  the  first  two 
tiers,  the  hooks  on  the  potters  are  caught  in  links  on  each  deck 
chain.     The  potters  on  the  far  side  are  held  in  a  vertical  posi- 


176 


LOGGING 


tion  by  a  log  rolled  against  them,  while  those  nearest  the  skid- 
way  may  be  turned  down  until  the  sled  is  loaded,  in  order  not 
to  offer  interference. 

It  is  not  practicable  to  attempt  to  take  animal-drawn  sleds 
up  even  occasional  grades  of  5  per  cent  or  more,  unless  some  hoist- 
ing device  is  used  to  pull  up  the  sleds.  This  may  comprise  a 
steam  boiler  and  engine  driving  drums  on  which  a  cable  is  wound 
that  is  attached  to  the  forward  part  of  the  sled.     The  team  usually 


4 

Mn 

11 

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fe' 

ii>. 

Fig.  48.  —  A  Snubbing  Device  for  controlling  the  speed  of  Loaded  Sleds 
on  Steep  Grades.  The  free  end  of  the  rope  in  the  foreground  is  attached 
to  the  sled. 


is  detached  before  the  load  starts.     In  some  cases  the  sleds  are 
returned  to  the  foot  of  the  incline  by  means  of  a  re-haul. 

The  problem  of  lowering  sleds  down  steep  inclines  is  solved 
by  the  use  of  some  form  of  snubbing  device.  The  most  simple 
type  has  a  1-inch  or  larger  manila  rope  one  end  of  which  is  fastened 
to  the  rear  of  the  sled.  The  rope  is  then  passed  three  or  four 
times  around  a  stump  at  the  top  of  the  grade.  As  the  sled  de- 
scends its  speed  is  controlled  by  means  of  the  rope,  which  is  allowed 
to  run  around  the  stump  as  fast  as  desired.  The  operator  con- 
trols the  rope  speed  by  means  of  a  lever  as  shown  in  Fig.  48. 


SLEDS  AND   SLED-HAULING  177 

The  rope  usually  is  from  50  to  100  feet  longer  than  the  slope  so 
that  a  descending  sled  pulls  the  free  end  of  the  rope  up  the  grade, 
and  causes  it  to  change  ends  v/hen  a  sled  load  descends. 

A  patent  snubbing  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  49.  This  system  is 
adapted  for  any  distance  up  to  2500  feet  and,  by  the  use  of  rol- 
lers, may  be  used  on  any  degree  of  curvature  under  90°.  The 
brake,  which  is  snubbed  to  a  stump  at  the  top  of  the  grade,  has 
a  heavy  timber  frame,  mounted  on  steel-shod  runners,  which  is 
faced  on   top  with   a  f-inch   steel   plate.     Four  or   six  friction 


C\'^ 


■7:dik4h 


L 


Fig.  49.  —  The  Barienger  Snubbing  Device  used  to  control  the  Speed   of 
Sleds  on  Descending  Grades. 

bases  with  hard  maple  faces  are  fastened  to  the  steel  plate.  A 
cast-iron  grooved  wheel  with  a  smooth  friction  face  on  the  under 
side  is  mounted  on  a  vertical  steel  post  above  each  hard  maple 
face.  A  steel  spring  holds  the  wheels  above  the  maple  blocks 
when  the  cable  is  running  free.  A  control  lever  is  provided  for 
each  two  wheels  by  means  of  which  they  can  be  forced  against 
the  maple  friction  face  and  the  speed  retarded  or  the  load  stopped. 
On  low  grades  one  set  of  friction  wheels  may  be  adequate, 
while  on  steep  grades  all  may  be  required.  The  lowering  cable 
is  |-inch  plow  steel  and  should  be  100  feet  longer  than  the  grade. 
It  is  fastened  to  a  wire  cable  sling  which  passes  around  the  load. 
On  well-maintained  roads  having  favorable  descending  grades, 
four  horses  can  haul  from  5000  to  8000  board  feet  per  load,  while 


178  LOGGING 

two  horses  can  haul  from  2500  to  4000  feet.  On  unfavorable 
grades  the  capacity  of  four  horses  may  be  from  2000  to  3000 
board  feet,  and  of  two  horses  from  1250  to  1500  feet. 

The  number  of  daily  trips  made  by  teams  for  given  distances 
is  influenced  by  the  weight  and  condition  of  the  animals,  the 
character  of  the  road  and  the  time  required  to  load  and  unload 
the  sleds.  Horses  tire  on  long  hauls  with  heavy  loads,  conse- 
quently more  timber  can  be  hauled  with  lighter  loads  because 
of  the  greater  speed  possible.  Horses  cannot  travel  more  than 
24  miles  daily  for  long  periods,  and  this  should  be  cut  down  to 
20  miles  when  possible.  The  number  of  round-trips  for  a  given 
length  of  haul  is  approximately  as  follows: 

6-mile  haul 2  round-trips 

5-mile  haul 2  round-trips 

4-mile  haul 2-3  round-trips 

3-mile  haul 3  round-trips 

2-mile  haul 4-5  round-trips 

1-mile  haul 6-8  round-trips 

|-  to  f-mile  haul 10-12  round-trips 

Log  Haulers.  —  As  early  as  1885  the  attention  of  loggers  was 
directed  to  the  problem  of  introducing  some  form  of  mechani- 
cal traction  to  replace  horses  on  long  sled  hauls,  but  it  was  some 
years  before  a  satisfactory  machine  was  placed  on  the  market. 

In  1889,  Geo.  T.  Glover  placed  four  log  haulers  on  operations 
in  Michigan.  These  were  probably  the  first  machines  used  for 
this  purpose  and,  although  they  were  not  a  success,  they  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  more  recent  ones  that  have  proved  to 
be  of  great  value. 

The  first  successful  steam  log  hauler  was  patented  by  O.  A. 
Lombard  of  Waterville,  Maine,  who  adopted  the  general  principles 
of  the  driving  gear  on  geared  locomotives,  substituting  for  driving 
wheels  a  special  form  of  heavy  traction  device. 

The  hauler  has  a  locomotive-type  boiler  mounted  on  a  heavy 
reinforced  channel-iron  frame,  which  also  supports  the  cab  and 
coal  tender  at  the  rear.  The  machine  is  supported  in  front  on 
a  narrow  tread  sled,  which  is  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  run 
either  forward  or  backward.  A  pilot,  who  sits  on  the  front  of 
the  machine,  steers  the  hauler  by  means  of  a  hand  wheel  which 
turns  the  sled. 

The  weight  of  the  machine  rests  chiefly  upon  two  special  trac- 


SLEDS  AND  SLED-HAULING 


179 


tion  de.vices  placed  under  the  rear  end  of  the  boiler.  Each  has 
a  heavy  steel  runner,  hung  on  a  4|-inch  shaft  and  equipped  on 
each  end  with  a  heavy  box  in  which  an  iron  shaft  carrying  a  heavy 
steel  sprocket  wheel  runs.  Each  set  of  sprocket  wheels  meshes 
into  and  carries  an  endless  tread  chain  12  inches  wide  and  14 
feet  long,  which  is  armed  with  calks  and  furnishes  the  traction 
surface.  The  weight  of  the  engine  is  distributed  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  tread  chain  by  two  tool  steel  roller  chains,  which 


Fig.  50.  —  A  Lombard  Steam  Log  Hauler. 


run  in  a  tool  steel  channel  attached  to  the  underside  of  the  steel 
runnerinside  of  the  tread  chain.  A  bearing  surface  of  approxi- 
mately 4^  square  feet  is  given  to  each  tread  chain  which  is  suffi- 
cient for  tractive  purposes  and  does  not  tear  up  the  road. 

The  boiler,  which  is  equipped  with  locomotive  boiler  attach- 
ments, is  15  feet  long,  36  inches  in  diameter  and  is  built  for  a 
working  pressure  of  200  pounds.  The  water  tank  is  placed 
under  the  boiler  directly  in  front  of  the  fire  box  and  has  a  capac- 
ity of  ten  barrels,  which  will  run  the  hauler  for  5  miles. 

The  engine  has  four  vertical  6^-  by  8-inch  cylinders  which 
transmit  power  by  a  series  of  gears  to  the  rear  sprocket  wheel 
on  each  runner.     Two  cylinders  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the 


180  LOGGING 

forward  part  of  the  boiler.  The  log  hauler  weighs  from  17  to  22 
tons  when  loaded  with  fuel  and  water. 

Steam  log  haulers  are  used  extensively  in  the  Lake  States, 
in  the  Northeast  and  in  Canada. 

Some  advantages  possessed  by  the  machine  are  that  the  an- 
nual depreciation^  and  repairs  are  less  than  the  depreciation  on 
an  equivalent  number  of  animals,  the  necessity  of  bringing  in 
large  quantities  of  feed  is  obviated,  and  the  machine  can  be 
operated  day  and  night  by  employing  two  crews.  Hauls  exceed- 
ing 4  miles  generally  can  be  made  cheaper  with  a  log  hauler 
than  with  animals. 

Under  average  conditions  a  cord  of  2-foot  fairly  dry  wood 
will  run  a  hauler  approximately  8  miles,  while  a  ton  of  soft  coal 
will  run  it  about  24  miles.  Watering  places  must  be  provided 
along  the  road  at  intervals  of  from  3  to  5  miles. 

The  operation  of  a  steam  log  hauler  requires  a  crew  of  from  three 
to  five  men;  namely,  one  engineer,  one  fireman,  one  pilot  and  when 
from  ten  to  twelve  sleds  are  hauled  one  or  two  trainmen. 

The  average  speed,  with  loaded  sleds,  is  4^  miles  per  hour, 
and  with  a  train  of  empty  sleds  the  speed  is  about  6  miles  per 
hour. 

Gasoline  caterpillar  tractors^  of  several  types  have  been 
introduced  for  sled  hauling  within  the  last  few  years  and  are 
rapidly  replacing  the  steam  driven  ones  since  they  weigh  less, 
have  their  center  of  gravity  lower  and,  therefore,  are  more  diffi- 
cult to  upset;  require  a  very  small  amount  of  water  daily;  have 
a  more  simple  fuel  problem  because  sufficient  gasoline  can  be  taken 
on  at  one  time  to  run  the  machine  for  a  day;  they  have  no  boiler 
flues  to  burn  out  on  steep  grades;  and  one-third  less  labor  is  re- 
quired for  the  operation  of  a  machine  because  a  fireman  and 
pilot  are  not  needed. 

The  cost  of  road  construction  for  both  types  of  log  haulers  is 
greater  than  for  animals  because  stronger  bridges  must  be  built, 
steep  down-grades  side-banked  and  timbered,  all  curves  strongly 
side-skidded  to  prevent  the  sleighs  leaving  the  road,  and  a  "go- 
back"  road  built  so  that  the  haulers  can  return  with  empty  sleds 
at  full  speed.  Sharp  curves  should  be  avoided  because  it  is 
difficult  to  keep  a  train  of  sleds  in  the  road. 

1  The  average  annual  depreciation  is  15  per  cent. 

2  See  Chapter  XIII. 


SLEDS  AND   SLED-HAULING 


181 


On  long,  level  hauls  it  is  customar}^  to  rut  and  ice  the  roads 
to  increase  the  hauling  capacity.  This  may  be  done  daily  on 
the  last  return  trip  from  the  landing,  the  rutter  and  sprinkler 
being  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  train.  As  a  rule,  however,  the 
road  is  maintained  by  a  separate  crew. 

Sleds  are  made  stronger  than  for  animal  haul  because  they  not 
only  bear  a  heavier  load  but  are  subject  to  severe  strain  in  stop- 
ping and  starting.  The  gauge  usually  is  about  8  feet  in  order  that 
the  hauler  may  travel  inside  of  the  ruts. 

Where  the  road  has  steep  ascending  or  descending  grades  three 
or  four  sleds  compose  a  "turn"  because  in  the  first  instance  the 


Fig.  51.  —  Type  of  Sled  used  with  a  Steam  Log  Hauler. 

machine  cannot  pull  loads  of  much  greater  weight  and  in  the 
second,  sleds  have  a  tendency  to  "jackknife"  and  run  out  of  the 
rut. 

In  mountain  regions,  steam  log  haulers  are  used  on  the  main 
road  only  because  the  cost  of  constructing  suitable  secondary 
roads  is  too  great.  Sleds  are  hauled  by  horses  to  a  central  point 
on  the  main  road  and  there  made  into  turns  for  the  log  hauler. 
In  a  flat  region  the  hauler  may  operate  direct  from  the  skidway 
to  the  landing,  because  of  cheap  road  construction. 

Landings  should  be  arranged  so  that  sleds  can  be  run  along 
the  side  of  the  rollways  and  unloaded  without  respotting.  The 
hauler  then  need  not  remain  during  unloading  but  can  at  once 
start  on  the  return  trip  to  the  skidways  with  the  empties  from 
the  preceding  turn.  This  method  of  operation  necessitates  the  use 
of  three  sets  of  sleds;  namely,  one  at  the  skidways,  one  on  the 
road  and  one  at  the  landing.  The  increased  cost  of  equipment 
is  more  than  offset  by  the  greater  capacity  of  the  hauler  and  the 
decreased  labor  cost  at  the  landing. 


182  LOGGING 

Haulers  in  the  Adirondack  mountains  have  carried  fifteen  cords 
of  spruce  pulpwood  over  roads  having  10  and  11  per  cent  grades. 
Distance  records  of  84  miles  in  twenty-four  hours  have  been 
reported.  The  heaviest  loads  have  been  hauled  in  the  Lake 
States  on  iced  roads.  A  single  steam  log  hauler  in  Wisconsin 
has  hauled  fourteen  sled  loads  of  hardwood  in  one  train,  each 
sled  bearing  from  6000  to  7000  board  feet,  making  three  or  four 
trips  daily  on  a  round-trip  of  12  miles.  In  Minnesota,  trains  of 
nine  sleds,  each  bearing  12,000  board  feet  of  white  and  Norway 
pine,  have  been  transported  by  one  hauler,  A  steam  hauler  in 
Ontario  made  three  turns  daily  on  a  road  between  7  and  8  miles 
long  hauling  from  nine  to  twelve  sleds  per  trip,  an  average  of 
thirty  loads.  Each  sled  carried  eighty  logs,  or  a  total  daily  haul 
of  2400  logs.  The  company  estimated  that  the  hauler  did  the 
work  of  twenty  teams. ^ 

A  record-^  of  one  machine  for  a  season's  haul  in  Stetson  Town, 
Franklin  County,  Maine,  from  January  11  to  March  6,  1907, 
running  day  and  night  shifts,  is  shown  in  the  following: 

Length  of  haul 7.5  miles 

Total  miles  traveled 2850 

Actual  speed 4  to  6  miles  per  hour 

Sleds  hauled 551 

Largest  number  of  sleds  in  1  turn  5 

Total  sleds  used  daily 21 

Fuel  used 350  cords  of  2-foot  hardwood 

Elapsed  time 65  days 

Running  time 53  days,  19  hours,  45  minutes 

Lost  time 6  days,  4  hours,  15  minutes 

Total  log  scale 3,403,332  feet  log  scale 

Scale  per  sled 6225  feet  log  scale . 

Scale  per  turn 18,052  feet  log  scale 

Largest  train 37,710  feet  log  scale 

Sixty-two  horses  would  have  been  required  to  haul  the  same 
amount  of  timber. 

1  See  Logging  by  Steam  in  Ontario  Forests.  Canada  Lumberman,  Toronto, 
Ontario,  Canada,  September,  1911,  p.  77. 

2  From  the  Mechanical  Traction  of  Sleds,  by  Asa  S.  Williams.  Forestry 
Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  1908,  p.  361. 


SLEDS  AND  SLED-HAULING  183 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   TO   CHAPTER  XI 

Brown,    Simmons:     Mechanical    Log   Haulers    and   their   Development. 

Report  of  Third  Annual  Conference  of  the  Woods  Dept.,  Berlin  Mills 

Co.  et  al,  Berlin,  New  Hampshire,  Nov.,  1915.,  pp.  22  to  26. 
Innes,  J.  S. :    Tractor  Haulage.     Canada  Lumberman  and  Woodworker, 

July  15,  1922.     pp.  45  and  46. 
SissoN,   Stanley  H.:    Use  of  Tractors  in  Winter  Log-hauling.     Empire 

State  Forest  Products  Asso.,  Bui.  No.  12,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Dec,  1921, 

pp.  26-29. 


CHAPTER   XII 

WHEELED   VEHICLES 

Wheeled  vehicles  may  be  used  where  snow  is  not  available  as 
a  bottom  on  which  to  move  logs.  They  are  employed  for  sum- 
mer logging  in  the  Lake  States  and  the  Inland  Empire,  and  for 
year-round  logging  in  the  South,  Southwest,  and  the  sugar  pine 
region  of  California. 

TWO-WHEELED    VEHICLES 

Bummers.  —  A  low  truck,  called  a  bummer  or  self-loading 
skfdder  is  extensively  used  in  the  flat  and  rolling  hardwood 
and  in  the  yellow  pine  forests  of  the  South,  especially  in  Arkan- 
sas and  Louisiana.  A  similar  vehicle  also  is  used  in  some  places 
in  the  Inland  Empire.  In  the  South  bummers  often  are  made 
by  the  camp  blacksmith  and  have  solid  black  gum  wheels  with 
14-inch  faces  and  a  diameter  of  from  18  to  21  inches.  Those 
offered  by  manufacturers  of  logging  supplies  have  a  skeleton  wheel 
24  inches  in  diameter  with  a  6-inch  tire.  The  solid  wheel  is 
usually  preferred  because  it  gives  a  greater  bearing  surface  on  soft 
ground. 

Hea\'y  steel  axles  support  a  wooden  bunk  from  2^  to  3|  feet 
in  length  which  is  slightly  concave  on  its  upper  surface.  A 
tongue  5^  feet  long  is  attached  to  the  bunk  and  serves  both  as  a 
loading  lever  and  as  a  point  of  attachment  for  the  draft  power. 
Small  logs  are  held  on  the  bunk  with  chains  and  large  logs  with 
tongs  attached  to  the  front  face  of  the  bunk  or  to  a  breastplate 
on  the  tongue. 

In  loading,  a  bummer  is  driven  up  to  a  log  and  backed  around 
against  it  near  the  end.  The  tongue  is  then  brought  to  a  per- 
pendicular position  which  permits  the  attachment  of  the  tongs 
3  or  4  feet  from  the  end  of  the  log  (Fig.  52).  The  team  is  then 
hitched  to  a  chain  on  the  end  of  the  tongue  and  driven  forward 
until  the  tongue  has  been  brought  to  a  horizontal  position,  which 
brings  the  log  on  top  of  the  wheels.     The  trucks  are  turned  by 

184 


WHEELED   VEHICLES 


185 


the  horses  until  the  log  drops  on  the  bunk.     The  load  is  then 
ready  to  start  for  the  skidway. 

Unloading  may  be  accomplished  by  a  reversal  of  the  process, 
or  by  disengaging  the  tong  points  by  a  blow  from  a  cant  hook  or 
maul  and  dragging  the  bummer  from  under  the  log. 

When  several  small  logs  are  handled  at  one  time,  tongs  are 
replaced  with  chains  and  loading  is  done  from  a  rough  skidway 
consisting  of  a  single  skid  stick 
with  one  end  raised  high  enough 
from  the  ground  to  enable  the 
logs  to  be  rolled  on  the  bunks 
with  cant  hooks. 

Bummers  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage only  in  a  region  fairly 
free  from  brush,  where  the  bot- 
tom is  smooth  and  hard  enough 
to  prevent  the  low  wheels  from 
miring,  and  where  gentle  grades 
to  the  skidway  can  be  secured. 
They  are  seldom  used  for  dis- 
tances exceeding  40  rods.  Bum- 
mers are  less  serviceable  than 
high  wheels  on  ascending  grades, 
since  they  pull  harder. 

In  ten  hours  a  bummer  will 
handle  from  8500  to  14,000  board 
feet  of  yellow  pine  for  a  distance 
of  200  yards,  and  from  4000  to  Fig.  52. 
6000  board  feet  for  a  distance  of 
450  yards. 

Log  Carts.  —  In  all  types  of  carts  the  logs  are  swung  beneath 
the  wheels  with  the  rear  ends  dragging  on  the  ground.  The 
height  of  wheels  ranges  from  5  to  12  feet  with  a  corresponding 
variation  in  gauge. 

High-wheeled  log  carts  are  not  adapted  to  hauling  on  descend- 
ing grades  in  excess  of  25  per  cent  because  of  the  difficulty  of  hold- 
ing back  the  load.  They  are  most  efficient  on  a  level  or  gently 
rolling  bottom. 

A  cart  used  in  the  Coastal  Plain  region  has  an  arched  axle  and 
wheels  4^  or  5^  feet  high.     The  hounds  of  the  cart  are  fastened 


The  Method  of  loading 
Logs  on  a  Bummer. 


186  LOGGING 

on  either  side  of  the  tongue  by  a  heavy  bolt.  A  bunk  rests  on 
top  of  the  axle  and  carries  two  upright  guides  between  which  the 
tongue  fits.  The  latter  is  held  in  place  by  a  spring  latch.  When 
the  cart  is  to  be  loaded  it  is  driven  up  to  one  end  of  a  log,  then 
backed  until  the  axle  is  directly  over  that  part  of  the  log  to  which 
the  chains  or  grapples  are  to  be  attached.  The  latch  on  the 
guides  is  then  released,  the  team  is  backed  for  a  step  or  two  and 
the  hounds  are  forced  into  a  position  nearly  vertical  which  turns 
the  bunk  through  a  quarter  circle  and  brings  it  near  enough  to  the 
ground  to  permit  the  grapples  or  chains  to  be  attached.  The 
elevation  of  the  log  is  accomplished  b}^  driving  the  team  forward, 
which  brings  the  hounds  and  tongue  to  a  horizontal  position. 

Wheels  of  this  character  may  be  used  in  a  region  where  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  snake,  or  to  use  bummers  without 
swamping  out  trails.  They  can  be  driven  readily  over  light 
standing  brush  or  in  down  timber  with  a  minimum  of  swamp- 
ing. It  is  not  customary  to  cut  trails  for  them.  The  capacity 
of  the  wheels  is  one  large,  or  from  three  to  four  small  logs.  Two 
horses  or  two  mules  draw  each  cart. 

Carts  with  larger  wheels  than  those  mentioned  are  in  ex- 
tensive use  in  the  South,  Southwest,  Lake  States,  sugar  pine 
region  of  California  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  in  the  Inland  Em- 
pire. They  formely  were  used  by  small  operators  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  The  wheels  are  from  7  to  12  feet  in  diameter  and  have 
tires  from  5  to  10  inches  wide.  When  one  or  two  logs  are  handled 
they  are  suspended  with  grapples,  and  when  several  constitute  a 
load  chains  are  used.  The  chief  distinction  between  the  several 
patterns  of  carts  is  in  the  mechanism  for  raising  the  logs  from 
the  ground. 

One  type  of  high-wheeled  log  cart  has  a  heavy  wooden  ])unk 
and  a  tongue  from  12  to  16  feet  long.  A  chain  is  attached  to 
the  front  side  of  and  passes  over  the  top  of  the  bunk,  ending  in 
a  ring  to  which  the  grapple  hooks  are  fastened.  In  loading 
the  cart  is  backed  over  the  log  or  logs  and  the  tongue  raised  to 
a  position  nearly  vertical,  by  means  of  a  pole  10  or  12  feet  long 
which  is  fastened  on  the  upper  side  of  the  tongue,  3  or  4  feet  in 
front  of  the  bunk.  This  pole  also  serves  to  hold  the  tongue  in 
position  during  loading.  The  elevation  of  the  tongue  lowers  the 
grapples  to  the  ground  so  that  they  can  be  attached  to  the  log. 
A  team  then  pulls  the  tongue  to  a  horizontal  position,  which  raises 


WHEELED   VEHICLES 


187 


the  front  end  of  the  log  clear  of  the  ground.  The  tongue  is  then 
chained  to  the  log,  the  horses  attached  to  the  front  end  of  it 
and  the  load  is  ready  to  move.  By  using  chains,  several  logs 
may  be  handled  at  one  time. 

Carts  of  this  character  are  used  for  hauling  short  hardwood 


Fi(..  ■)■',.  —  A  >lip-i(.iiuuc  Loji;  Curl,  siiowiiifr  the  Position  of  the  Load  during 
Transit.  The  siiort  lever  arm  above  the  main  tongue  is  attached  to  the 
rotating  bunk  to  which  the  timber  grabs  are  fastened.  It  automatically 
assumes  a  nearly  vertical  position,  when  the  cart  tongue  is  pushed  to  the 
rear.     Texas. 


logs  in  the  Lake  States,  sugar  pine  in  California  and  yellow  pine 
in  the  South. 

A  type  known  as  the  "slip  tongue"  cart  has  now  largely  super- 
seded the  older  forms.  It  has  a  tongue  28  or  30  feet  long,  which 
slides  between  the  hounds  of  the  cart.  It  is  weighted  on  the 
rear  end  so  as  to  lighten  the  load  on  the  necks  of  the  wheel  animals. 
There  is  a  roller  directly  over  the  axle,  to  which  the  grapples  are 
attached  by  chains.^  Fastened  to  this  roller  is  a  short  lever 
arm  which  is  connected  to  the  sliding  tongue  by  means  of  a  chain. 
The  cart  is  driven  over  a  log,  a  catch  holding  the  slip  tongue 
and  the  lever  arm,  is  loosened,  the  team  backed  up  and  the  tongue 
1  See  Figs.  53  and  54. 


188 


LOGGING 


slipped  to  the  rear.  The  roller  is  so  weighted  that  it  revolves  in 
a  quarter  circle,  carrying  the  lever  arm  to  a  nearly  vertical  posi- 
tion. The  grapples  are  then  fastened  to  the  logs,  and  the  team 
is  started.  The  tongue  slips  forward,  pulHng  the  lever  arm  to  a 
horizontal  position,  and  raises  the  front  end  of  the  log  from  the 
ground.     When  the  short  lever  arm  reaches  the  catch  on  the 


^'sSti^v^cJI 


Fig.  54.  —  A  Two-wheeled  Slip-Tongue  Log  Cart  hauling  Long  Logs.  Note 
the  rotating  bunk  above  the  cart  a.xle,  to  which  the  grab  chains  are  attached. 
Texas. 


tongue  it  is  automatically  locked.     The  team  then  starts  for  the 
skid  way  with  the  load. 

High  wheels  are  especially  adapted  to  a  flat  and  rolling  country 
with  a  firm,  smooth  bottom  and  an  absence  of  heavy  underbrush. 
They  are  most  frequently  used  on  hauls  not  exceeding  ^  mile 
but  occasionally  they  are  used  for  distances  of  2  or  2|  miles. 
In  the  pine  forests  of  the  extreme  South  they  may  be  used  for 
distances  which  do  not  exceed  100  feet.  When  used  as  a  skidding 
rig  in  the  southern  pine  forests  the  only  road  construction  required 
is  swamping  out  a  trail  through  the  slash  along  which  the  teams 


WHEELED  VEHICLES  189 

can  pass.  The  practice  prevails  in  some  rep;ions  of  felling  the 
timber  in  strips,  beginning  at  the  back  side  of  the  skidding  area 
where  a  strip  from  100  to  200  feet  wide  is  cut  parallel  to  the  rail- 
road and  then  skidded.  The  work  continues  in  this  manner 
until  the  railroad  is  reached.  This  permits  the  teamsters  to 
haul  the  greater  part  of  the  time  through  standing  timber  free 
from  slash,  which  facilitates  the  work.  Some  loggers  claun  that 
the  efficiency  of  a  crew  is  increased  25  per  cent  by  this  method. 

Roads  are  made  and  roughly  graded  in  the  hardwood  forests 
of  the  Lake  States  where  brush  is  abundant.  Since  short  logs 
only  are  handled  the  roads  need  not  be  straight  and  boulders  and 
stumps  can  be  passed  by  a  detour. 

From  two  to  six  animals  are  used  to  haul  log  carts,  depending 
on  the  character  of  the  roadbed  and  the  size  and  amount  of 
timber  hauled.  Mules  are  preferred  in  the  South,  and  horses 
in  the  North  and  West. 

A  crew  in  the  southern  pine  forests  often  consists  of  three 
teamsters,  one  or  two  "bunch"  teamsters,  one  or  two  swampers 
and  one  skidway  man.  The  "bunch"  teams  yard  the  logs  along 
the  roads  at  places  convenient  to  the  log  carts. 

In  the  Lake  States,  two  pairs  of  wheels  and  two  bunch  teams 
are  used  by  a  crew.  The  brushy  nature  of  the  country  requires 
about  four  men  for  the  swamping  and  other  men  with  cant  hooks 
to  roll  the  bunched  logs  together  into  loads  for  each  log  cart. 

In  the  southern  yellow  pine  region  log  carts  drawn  bj^  two 
mules  haul  from  200  to  500  board  feet  of  long  logs  at  one  load. 
When  four  mules  are  used,  from  800  to  1000  board  feet  may  be 
handled,  but  six  mules  are  required  for  more  than  this  volume. 

In  the  Lake  States  the  load  for  four  horses  ranges  between 
1000  and  1200  feet  log  scale,  with  a  maximum  of  1800  feet.  In 
the  sugar  pine  region  of  California,  from  six  to  seven  carts,  drawn 
l)y  four  horses  each  weighing  from  1500  to  1800  pounds  are 
used  in  one  camp  and  will  put  in  an  average  of  from  100,000  to 
125,000  board  feet  daily. 


Wagons  are  a  desirable  form  of  vehicle  for  stocking  small  saw- 
mill plants,  transporting  timber  to  the  railroad  on  large  opera- 
tions where  the  haul  exceeds  600  feet,  and  for  logging  isolated 
tracts  on  which  there  is  not  sufficient  timber  to  warrant  the  con- 


190  LOGGING 

struction  of  a  logging  railroad.  They  may  be  used  to  transport 
logs  direct  from  the  stump  to  the  mill  for  distances  of  from  2  to 
4  miles,  although  they  are  most  extensively  used  to  haul  logs  from 
the  stump  to  a  railroad,  stream  or  chute.  The  average  length  of 
haul  in  the  flat  and  rolling  pine  lands  of  the  South  is  from  j  to  ^  mile. 

Mule  Carts.  —  In  the  Coastal  Plain  region,  a  type  of  4-wheeled 
wagon  called  the  "mule  cart"  is  used  on  the  uplands  for  hauling 
logs  to  the  railroad.  It  has  two  pairs  of  trucks,  the  wheels 
of  the  forward  pair  being  4  feet,  and  the  rear  pair  6  feet,  in  diam- 
eter. The  forward  trucks  have  a  straight  axle  and  are  equipped 
with  a  tongue  of  the  usual  length  for  a  wagon,  while  the  rear 
pair  has  an  arched  axle  and  bunk  to  which  a  tongue  is  attached 
which  replaces  the  reach  in  an  ordinary  wagon.  When  the 
mule  cart  is  loaded  this  tongue  is  chained  down  to  a  ring  on 
the  bunk  of  the  forward  pair  of  wheels.  The  logs  are  swung 
under  the  rear  pair  of  wheels  and  only  the  forward  ends  of  the 
logs  are  raised  from  the  ground.  The  forward  pair  of  trucks 
may  be  detached  and  used  for  skidding  purposes,  in  which  case 
the  log  is  suspended  under  the  axle  by  means  of  grabs,  or  tongs. 
Mule  carts  do  not  possess  any  special  advantages  over  a  wagon, 
but  are  preferred  because  laborers  are  familiar  with  their  use. 

The  usual  maximum  length  of  haul  is  500  yards,  but  it  is 
sometimes  extended  to  1  mile  or  more  in  scattered  timber. 

The  average  load  per  cart  varies  between  200  and  400  board 
feet,  with  a  daily  output  of  from  3500  to  5000  feet  for  j  mile  haul. 

Four-wheeled  Wagons.  —  These  are  strongly  constructed,  with 
from  32-  to  38-inch  front  wheels  and  from  34-  to  40-inch  rear  wheels 
of  wood  or  steel,  from  3-  to  6-inch  tires, ^  extension  reach  for 
handling  logs  of  various  lengths,  heavy  bolsters  with  adjustable 
blocks,  stiff  tongues  for  oxen  and  drop  tongues  for  horses  and 
mules,  and  cast  or  steel  skeins,  or  steel  axles.  They  have  a  rated 
carrying  capacity  of  from  5000  to  15,000  pounds  and  range 
in  weight  from  1300  to  2000  pounds.  Spikes  are  used  on  the 
back  bolster  to  prevent  the  logs  from  sliding  forward  when  haul- 
ing in  a  hilly  region.  Steel  axles  are  not  as  popular  as  skeins, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  repairing  them  in  the  camp  blacksmith 
shop. 

Log  wagon  wheels  are  sometimes  boxed  with  boards  to  keep 

^  Some  loggers  prefer  from  3-  to  3^-inch  tires  for  two  animals,  and  from  4-  to 
5-inch  tires  for  four  animals. 


WHEELED  VEHICLES 


191 


mud  from  accumulating  on  the  spokes.  The  box  is  constructed 
of  rough  boards  nailed  to  the  rims  and  closely  fitted  around  the 
hub. 

From  two  to  five  mules  or  horses,  and  from  six  to  ten  oxen 
are  used  for  draft  purposes,  although  heavy  wagons  are  some- 
times drawn  by  traction  engines  or  tractors. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Inland  Empire  very  heavy  wagons  are  used 
for  hauling  logs  from  storage  yards  or  skidways  to  the  logging 


iv^^ie^ 


mi  ■M.'MW 


Fig.  55.  —  A  Four-wheeled  Log  Wagon  unloading  at  a  Skidway  along  a 
Logging  Railroad  Spur.  The  graded  right-of-way  is  being  u.sed  as  a  road 
and,  therefore,  the  logs  are  being  decked  from  the  front  of  the  skidway, 
instead  of  from  the  rear  as  is  the  usual  custom.     Missouri. 

railroad.  Those  on  an  operation  in  Montana  had  standard  height 
wheels  with  6-inch  tires,  and  bunks  6  feet  long  and  10  feet  apart, 
with  the  outer  ends  fitted  with  swa}'  bars  for  the  attachment  of 
binding  chains.  The  rear  trucks  were  equipped  with  hea\'y  hand 
brakes  operated  by  a  man  who  traveled  on  foot  behind  the  load- 
From  2500  to  4000  board  feet  were  loaded  on  the  wagons  by 
gravity  from  elevated  skidways  at  the  terminus  of  a  log  slide. 
The  road  was  1  mile  long  and  mostly  downgrade,  with  some 
pitches  of  6  and  8  per  cent.  Four  horses  were  used  for  draft 
and  each  team  averaged  five  round-trips  per  day  between  the 


192  LOGGING 

railroad  and  the  log  chute  and  handled  from  15,000  to  18,000 
board  feet. 

In  the  sugar  pine  region  of  California  very  heavy  4-wheeled 
trucks  of  12  tons'  capacity  are  used  for  log  transportation  when 
a  traction  engine  is  employed  for  draft  power.  These  wagons 
have  54-inch  solid  or  skeleton  wheels,  20-inch  tires,  a  short  coup- 
ling tongue,  and  are  equipped  with  hand  brakes  and  binding 
chains.  From  5000  to  7500  board  feet  may  be  loaded  on  one 
wagon. 

Six-wheeled  Wagons.  —  Wagons  with  six  wheels  were  placed 
on  the  market  in  the  South  some  years  ago  but  they  have  not 
proved  as  satisfactory  as  the  eight-wheeled  ones.  The  rear  trucks, 
which  carry  from  60  to  70  per  cent  of  the  load,  have  a  rigid  frame 
bearing  two  axles  and  four  wheels  arranged  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  8-wheeled  type.  The  rear  truck  is  connected  to  the 
forward  one  by  the  usual  form  of  wagon  reach.  They  are  designed 
to  carry  heavier  loads  than  4-wheeled  wagons,  and  to  eliminate 
the  heavy  draft  and  difficulty  in  backing  and  turning  in  a  short 
compass  which  are  common  to  the  8-wheeled  wagons. 

Eight-wheeled  Wagons.  —  Eight-wheeled  wagons  are  in  exten- 
sive use  in  the  southern  pine  forests,  and  in  the  hardwood  forests 
of  the  Mississippi  bottoms. 

They  are  a  heavy  draft  vehicle,  more  difficult  to  turn  and 
to  back  than  a  4-wheeled  wagon  but  are  capable  of  carrying  a 
much  heavier  load  because  of  the  wide  tires  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  load  over  eight  wheels.  They  can  be  used  on  a 
dirt  road  in  a  shorter  time  after  a  rain  than  4-wheeled  wagons, 
and  often  a  road  will  improve  under  8-wheeled  traffic  where  it 
would  deteriorate  under  that  of  four  wheels.  The  bunks  also  are 
lower  than  on  4-wheelers  and  the  wagon  can  be  loaded  more  readily. 

On  short  hauls  four  or  five  mules  are  frequently  used  with 
8-wheeled  wagons,  but  on  long  hauls  they  are  not  desirable  for 
this  type  of  wagon  because  of  its  heavy  draft,  oxen  being  the 
best,  especially  for  heavy  loads  and  on  unfavorable  bottom. 
From  three  to  five  yoke  constitute  a  team. 

Eight-wheeled  wagons  are  successfully  used  with  traction 
engine  draft,  three  or  four  wagons  each  holding  from  1000  to 
1500  board  feet  constituting  a  train. 

The  distinctive  features  of  an  8-wheeled  wagon  are  the  for- 
ward and  rear  trucks  which  on  some  types  are  rigid,  consequently 


WHEELED   VEHICLES 


193 


sharp  turns  cannot  be  made  without  dragging  some  or  all  of  the 
wheels.  Others  have  the  front  trucks  so  arranged  that  the  two 
sets  of  wheels  can  turn  independently,  thus  reducing  the  resist- 
ance. All  wheels  are  of  the  same  diameter,  varying  in  different 
vehicles  from  30  to  36  inches  in  height. 

The  log  bunks,  with  adjustable  blocks,  are  supported  midway 
between  the  wheels  of  each  truck  and  project  slightly  above  the 


Fig.  56.  —  An  Eight-wlieelcd  Log  Wagon  at  the  Skidway.     Louisiana. 


wheels.  A  short  reach  is  attached  to  the  forward  and  rear  trucks 
by  flexible  joints. 

Eight-wheelers  have  an  estimated  capacity,  on  good  roads, 
of  from  9000  to  20,000  pounds  weight.  They  weigh  from  1200 
to  1800  pounds. 

Wagon  Equipment.  —  The  equipment  used  with  log  wagons 
on  southern  pine  operations  is  as  follows: 

1  ax. 

1  cant  hook. 

1  five-sixteenth-inch  chain,  .30  feet  long,  the  end.s  of  which  are  bolted  to 
the  bunks  of  the  forward  and  rear  trucks. 

1  one-half-inch  chain,  12  feet  long,  with  a  grab  hook  on  one  end  and  a 
loading  hook  on  the  other.  This  chain  and  the  one  above  form  the 
crosshaul  used  in  loading. 

2  hardwood  skids  about  7  feet  long  and  4  inches  in  diameter. 
1  hickory  binding  pole. 

Roads.  —  On  short  hauls  the  only  preparation  made  for  roads 
is  to  cut  out  a  right-of-way  through  the  brush.  If  the  bottom 
becomes   heavy    for   travel  a  new  route  is  selected.     When  a 


194  LOGGING 

large  number  of  logs  must  pass  over  a  single  route,  a  good  dirt 
road  is  essential.  It  should  be  built  on  high  ground,  the  streams 
bridged,  wet  places  corduroyed  and  sufficient  repair  work  done 
to  maintain  it  in  good  condition. 

The  best  season  for  hauling  is  during  the  summer  months 
when  the  ground  is  dry  and  hard,  for  maximum  loads  can  then 
be  handled  on  logging  trucks  with  the  least  amount  of  trouble. 
In  swampy  sections  and  on  bottom-land  logging  often  has  to  be 
suspended  during  the  rainy  period. 

Hauling.  —  A  common  practice  among  companies  who  own 
their  equipment  and  do  their  own  logging  is  to  work  several 
wagons  to  a  crew.  The  logs,  after  being  swamped,  are  skidded  with 
a  bunch  team  to  some  place  convenient  to  the  wagons.  The 
wagon  teamsters  then  are  concerned  only  with  loading  and 
hauling  the  logs.  On  small  operations  and  where  small  con- 
tractors may  be  operating,  each  wagon  teamster  does  his  own 
swamping,  bunching  and  loading.  The  former  method  is  con- 
sidered the  more  efficient.^ 

On  a  haul  of  \  mile,  one  bunch  team  can  skid  logs  for  two  or 
three  wagons,  and  for  greater  distances  it  can  serve  more  teams 
because  of  the  fewer  number  of  trips  made.  Each  wagon  carries 
a  pair  of  skidding  tongs  and,  if  the  bunch  team  gets  behind, 
the  wagon  teamster  unhooks  his  leaders  or  the  pole  team  and 
brings  in  a  few  logs.  The  number  of  swampers  required  depends 
on  the  character  of  the  timber  and  the  under-brush. 

Wagons  are  loaded  by  the  teamsters,  who  use  a  crosshaul  rig. 

On  short  hauls,  large  logs  are  not  bound  to  the  wagon,  but  on 
long  hauls  or  when  the  load  is  made  up  of  small  logs,  it  is  customary 
to  pass  a  binding  chain  around  the  load  and  under  the  reach. 
This  chain  is  tightened  by  a  hickory  binding  pole.  The  loading 
chains  are  wrapped  loosely  around  the  logs,  the  loading  skids 
are  placed  on  the  reach,  and  the  wagon  is  ready  to  start  for  the 
skidway.  Logs  are  unloaded  by  removing  the  binding  chains, 
placing  skids  in  position  and  rolling  the  logs  off  the  wagon  by 
means  of  cant  hooks  or  peavies. 

Hauling  should  be  in  charge  of  a  team  boss,  who  selects  and 

1  The  secret  of  successful  logging  with  cattle  is  to  keep  them  going  con- 
tinuously at  their  slow  gait.  Therefore,  much  depends  on  the  swamper's 
skill  in  keeping  ahead  of  the  hauling  team  so  that  the  latter  will  not  have  to 
wait  for  loads. 


WHEELED  VEHICLES 


195 


directs  the  preparation  of  skidways  and  logging  roads,  determines 
the  best  methods  and  equipment  for  hauHng  timber  from  par- 
ticular sections,  allots  given  crews  to  specified  work,  and  sees 
that  all  men  and  animals  are  employed  to  best  advantage.  Skid- 
ways  should  be  selected  and  prepared  some  days  in  advance 
of  actual  use  so  that  the  hauling  teams  will  not  be  delayed  by 
lack  of  storage  space. 

On  good  bottom  and  level  ground  two  horses  or  mules  should 
handle  from  400  to  600  board  feet  per  load  and  from  6000  to  10,000 


,   -  i.  ''^  Wagon  by  means  of  the  Cros.- 
is  doing  his  own  loading.     Missouri. 


feet  daily ;  four  animals  should  handle  from  600  to  800  feet  per  load, 
and  from  8000  to  12,000  feet  daily.  Five  yokes  of  oxen  will 
handle  from  600  to  1000  feet  of  logs  per  trip,  depending  on  the 
kind  of  bottom  and  the  size  of  the  timber. 

The  average  number  of  trips  daily  for  two  horses   or   mules        / 
is  approximately  as  follows: 

J  mile  and  less 12  to  15  trips  — _____J 

i  to  I  mile 10  trips  ^    ^    , 

^  to  f  mile 7  trips  _^ 

i  to  1\  miles 5  trips  "^        ° 

IJ  to  If  miles 4-5  trips  ^    .- 


196  LOGGING 

TRACTION    ENGINES    FOR    WAGON   HAUL 

Traction  engines  are  sometimes  used  for  transporting  logs  from 
the  woods  to  the  mill  when  the  amount  of  timber  to  be  hauled  is 
not  great  enough  to  warrant  the  construction  of  a  railroad,  when 
the  grades  are  unfavorable  for  the  use  of  animals  and  when 
timber  of  large  size  and  great  weight  must  be  handled.  They 
are  rapidly  being  supplanted  by  motor  trucks  which  are  faster 
and  more  efficient. 

A  traction  engine  to  give  the  best  results  requires  a  good  stone 
road  but  it  works  well  on  solid  earth  bottom.  The  ordinary 
4-wheeled  type  is  not  successful  in  swampy  places,  on  rough  roads 
or  on  dirt  bottom  during  rainy  periods  because  the  traction 
wheels  soon  render  the  road  impassable. 

Four-icheeled.  —  This  traction  engine  has  a  locomotive-type 
boiler  carrying  about  165  pounds'  steam  pressure,  and  is  equipped 
to  burn  either  coal,  wood  or  oil.  The  boiler  and  other  parts  of 
the  engine  are  mainly  supported  on  two  traction  wheels  running 
on  axles  attached  on  opposite  sides  of  the  fire  box.  The  diameter 
of  these  wheels  is  ordinarily  between  5  and  6  feet.  The  width  of 
tire  is  governed  by  the  character  of  bottom  over  which  the  engine 
is  to  travel.  On  ordinary  roads  from  20-  to  24-inch  tires  are 
adequate  even  for  the  largest  machines. 

The  forward  part  of  the  engine  is  supported  on  a  pair  of 
wheels  3^  or  4  feet  in  diameter  with  from  6-  to  10-inch  tires. 
These  wheels  carry  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  total  weight, 
their  chief  function  being  to  aid  in  steering.  This  is  done  by 
means  of  a  hand  wheel  placed  at  the  rear  of  the  engine  in  close 
reach  of  the  engineer. 

The  engine  which  develops  from  20  to  30-horse-power  is  of 
the  single  cylinder  type  with  a  heavy  flywheel. 

The  daily  fuel  requirements  range  between  1^  and  2^  cords 
of  hardwood,  or  between  1  and  1^  tons  of  coal.  About  2500 
gallons  of  water  are  needed  for  the  above  amount  of  fuel. 

On  a  Washington  operation  a  30-horse-power  traction  engine 
has  made  a  daily  round  trip  of  30  miles,  hauling  20,000  board 
feet  of  green  lumber  up  15  per  cent  grades,  and  down  30  per  cent 
grades.  This  is  probabl}^  the  maximum  capacity  of  an  engine  of 
this  type. 

Holt  Three-wheeled.  —  This  type  was  developed  chiefly  for 
use  in  logging  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  has  a  return-tube  water- 


WHEELED  VEHICLES 


197 


leg  horizontal  boiler  supported  on  an  I-beam  frame.  Almost 
the  entire  weight  of  the  machine  rests  on  the  rear  traction  wheels, 
each  7^  feet  in  diameter  with  a  24-inch  tire.  The  fore  part  of  the 
engine  is  supported  by  a  single  4-foot  wheel  used  for  steering. 
Provision  is  made  for  the  operation  of  the  steering  gear  both  by 
hand  and  by  power.     A  single  cylinder  11-  by  12-inch  balanced 


Fig.  58. 


A  Holt  Three-wheeled  Traction  Engine  hauling  Sugar  Pine  Logs. 
California. 


valve  engine  is  placed  on  top  of  the  boiler,  and  at  165 
pounds'  steam  pressure  develops  60  horse  power.  Power  is 
transmitted  to  the  traction  wheels  by  chains,  and  either  wheel 
may  be  driven  independently  of  the  other.  This  is  especially 
advantageous  in  making  sharp  turns.  A  radius  of  25  feet  is 
practicable  in  operating  a  train  of  five  cars. 

Water  tanks  with  a  capacity  of  from  400  to  700  gallons  are 
carried  on  the  frame  directly  in  front  of  the  boiler.  The  average 
water  requirement  per  day  of  ten  hours  is  from  2500  to  3000 
gallons.  From  1^  to  3  cords  of  hardwood  fuel,  1  to  2^  tons  of 
steam  coal  or  from  200  to  300  gallons  of  fuel  oil  are  required. 


198  LOGGING 

A  special  type  of  3-wheeled  wagon  is  sometimes  employed  for 
hauling  logs  and  lumber  with  this  engine.  The  front  wheel  is 
3|  feet  in  diameter,  has  a  12-inch  tire  and  supports  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  load.  The  remainder  of  the  weight  is  borne  on 
two  rear  wheels  each  4|  feet  high  and  with  16-inch  tires.  The 
load  is  borne  on  a  frame  built  to  carry  from  10  to  12  tons. 

The  manufacturers  claim  that  a  60-horse-power  engine  will 
haul  a  load  of  from  40  to  60  tons  at  a  speed  of  from  2  to  3  miles 
per  hour,  ascending  grades  as  high  as  10  per  cent.  Thirty  thou- 
sand board  feet  of  green  lumber  loaded  on  three  trucks  have  been 
hauled  up  a  10  per  cent  grade,  and  15,000  feet  of  logs  have  been 
hauled  on  two  four-wheeled  wagons  over  a  rough  log  road  down 
a  17  per  cent  grade.  An  engine  hauling  empty  wagons  travels 
3  or  4  miles  per  hour. 

MOTOR   TRUCKS 

The  use  of  motor  trucks  for  logging  purposes  has  grown  rap- 
idly during  recent  years,  especially  in  the  Central  Hardwood 
Region  and  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  Their  chief  use  is  for 
hauling  logs  from  the  forest  to  the  sawmill  but  they  also  are  used 
for  hauling  camp  supplies,  pulling  sleds  loaded  with  logs,  dragging 
timber  over  roads  with  steep  grades  and,  when  equipped  with 
flanged  wheels,  as  motive  power  for  pulling  cars  on  wooden-  or 
steel-rail  logging  roads. 

Motor  trucks  have  proved  a  satisfactory  form  of  transportation 
for  moving  logs  from  scattered  areas  containing  from  500,000  to 
40,000,000  feet  log  scale,  when  the  maximum-sized  logs  do  not 
exceed  5000  board  feet,  and  the  average  logs  are  not  more  than 
1000  board  feet  each  and  not  more  than  40  feet  in  length.  When 
the  timber  is  of  larger  size  and  the  area  contains  more  stumpage 
than  the  above  mentioned  maximum,  a  logging  railroad  would  be 
more  economical. 

There  is  a  recognized  limit  to  the  length  of  profitable  motor 
truck  haul  for  general  logging  purposes,  although  loggers  are  not 
agreed  as  to  what  is  the  maximum.  Some  state  that  it  is  about 
10  miles,  while  others  claim  that  a  15-mile  haul  may  be  profitable 
under  favorable  circumstances.  The  character  of  roadbed,  and 
value  of  the  logs  are  important  factors  in  determining  this  ques- 
tion because  the  roadbed  governs  the  size  of  load  which  can  be 
hauled  and  the  time  required  to  make  a  round  trip,  and  more 


WHEELED   VEHICLES  199 

expense  is  warranted  in  hauling  valuable  logs  than  those  of 
average  quality.  For  example,  veneer  mills  in  the  Central  Hard- 
wood Region  have  hauled  logs  on  round  trips  of  85  miles,  with 
average  loads  of  from  900  to  1000  feet  log  scale  and  the  service 
was  stated  to  be  as  cheap  as  railroad  transportation  and  much 
quicker. 

Three  general  types  of  trucks  are  used,  namelj',  light  trucks, 
medium  trucks  with  a  rated  capacity  of  from  3  to  4  tons,  and  hea\^ 
trucks  rated  at  5  tons  or  more.  The  light  truck  represents  the 
lowest  initial  investment  but  owing  to  its  limited  capacity  and 
less  rugged  construction,  it  is  not  adapted  to  heavy  or  steady 
log-hauling  work.  The  medium- weight  truck  is  adapted  to 
conditions  where  the  size  of  the  load  is  limited  by  state  or  county 
road  regulations.  Many  operators  rely  upon  public  roads  for 
their  main  lines  and  build  side  roads  from  them  to  the  timber. 
Limits  have  been  set  to  the  amount  of  timber  which  may  be  car- 
ried over  public  roads  on  one  unit,  in  those  sections  in  which 
hauling  by  motor  trucks  has  become  extensive.  This  limit  varies 
from  2400  to  3000  board  feet  in  different  counties  in  the  Douglas 
fir  region.  The  heavy  trucks  are  preferred  on  operations  on 
which  private  roads,  only,  are  used  since  maximum  loads,  ranging 
from  3000  to  5000  board  feet,  can  be  carried  on  each  trip. 

Many  makes  of  trucks  are  used,  including  four-wheeled  drive, 
and  both  chain  and  gear  rear-wheel  drive.  Loggers  prefer  a 
machine  with  a  wheel  base  of  from  160  to  170  inches,  since 
this  gives  a  good  balance  to  the  load,  and  a  truck  so  built  can  be 
handled  on  turns  and  at  the  loading  places  easier  than  one  which 
is  longer.  The  frames  of  trucks  with  larger  wheel  bases  may 
give  trouble,  when  overloaded,  by  tending  to  buckle.  A  motor 
truck  for  log  hauling  should  have  stronger  springs,  gears  and 
bearings  than  are  placed  on  ordinary  commercial  vehicles  of  the 
same  size,  because  of  the  severe  usage  to  which  the  machine  is 
subject.  Solid,  single-tread  rubber  tires,  12  or  14  inches  wide, 
are  used  on  the  rear  wheels  of  practically  all  logging  trucks  and 
on  trailers  and  are  safe  for  use  on  dry  pole  or  plank  roads  having 
9  per  cent  grades.  They  will  skid  on  a  wet  road  on  grades  in 
excess  of  7  per  cent  unless  the  tires  are  wrapped  with  ^-inch 
wire  cable,  or  similar  cable  is  fastened  crosswise  on  the  traction 
surface.  On  good  roads  and  favorable  grades,  logging  trucks 
travel  from  10  to  12  miles  per  hour. 


200  LOGGING 

Trailers  are  now  in  extensive  use  with  motor  trucks  since  they  add 
greatly  to  the  average  load  capacity,  because  all  trucks  have  a 
hauling  ability  greater  than  the  volume  of  round  timber  which 
they  can  carry.  Rubber-tired  trailers,  with  two  40-  to  44-inch 
wheels  are  recognized  as  the  best  type,  and  when  operating  on 
grades  exceeding  9  per  cent  they  should  be  equipped  with  brakes. 

They  often  have  double  bunks,  from  7  to  9  feet  long,  usually 
8  feet,  one  being  plain  and  the  other  having  adjustable  chock 
blocks.  The  rated  capacity  of  trailers  varies  from  5  to  10  tons, 
and  usually  they  carry  about  60  per  cent  of  the  total  load.  They 
are  connected  to  the  truck  by  a  wooden  extension  reach  which  is 
considered  more  satisfactory  than  one  made  from  iron  pipe 
because  the  latter  bends  and  breaks  more  readily  and  is  more 
expensive  to  repair  or  replace. 

Success  in  truck  logging  is  largely  dependent  on  good  roads, 
which  should  be  so  constructed  that  they  will  stand  up  under 
weights  of  20  to  25  tons  during  all  kinds  of  weather.  Trucks 
cannot  be  operated  successfully  on  dirt  or  gravel  roads  during 
wet  weather,  and  dirt  roads  soon  develop  chuck  holes  during 
dry  weather  unless  they  are  watered.^ 

Various  types  of  plank  and  pole  roads  have  been  developed  by 
loggers  who  have  endeavored  to  improve  the  traction  surface 
in  the  forest  over  which  they  are  hauling,  especially  if  the  bottom 
is  soft  or  liable  to  severe  wearing. 

Plank  roads  on  tangents  have  two  traction  surfaces  from  20 
to  30  inches  wide  which  comprise  the  base  on  which  the  truck 
travels.  The  traction  surface  should  be  at  least  24  inches  wide 
on  curves  since  the  trailer  has  a  tendency  to  cut  across  the  curve 
and  to  displace  the  guard  rail  unless  there  is  ample  clearance. 
The  stringers  comprising  the  traction  surface  should  not  be  less 
than  6  inches  in  thickness,  and  from  10  to  16  inches  in  width. 
Two  or  more  pieces  form  a  single  stringer,  and  they  are  drift 
bolted  to  crossties  spaced  about  2|  feet  center  to  center. 
These  planks  are  bedded  in  the  ground  surface  so  that  they  rest 
on  a  solid  foundation.  On  grades  that  exceed  8  per  cent,  the 
planks  forming  the  traction  surface  are  laid  crosswise  on  a  sub- 
stantial base  of  timbers,  the  spacing  between  planks  being  about 
1  inch.     This  form  of  track  is  more  expensive  to  construct  than 

1  During  dry  weather,  a  dirt  road  usually  can  be  kept  in  condition  by  the 
application,  daily,  of  1000  gallons  of  water  per  mile. 


WHEELED   VEHICLES  201 

the  longitudinal  stringer  road,  but  provides  a  better  traction 
surface.  Guard  rails  may  be  placed  either  inside  or  outside  of 
the  stringers,  except  on  curves  of  10  degrees  or  more  when  they 
are  placed  on  both  sides.  The  inside  tread  gauge  both  of  the  front 
and  rear  wheels  is  the  same,  which  is  not  true  of  the  outside  meas- 
urements of  front  and  rear  tires.  For  this  reason,  inside  guard 
rails  are  preferred  since  trucks  steer  more  readily  and  trailers 
follow  more  easily.  Inside  guard  rails  should  be  not  less  than  4 
inches  in  height  but  must  not  be  so  high  that  they  interfere  with 
the  brake  drums  or  driving  gear.  The  guard  rails  are  made  from 
small  poles  spiked  both  to  the  crossties  and  to  the  stringers  and 
when  inside  ones  are  used  they  are  braced  by  small  poles  which 
are  placed  between  them,  about  three  to  a  pole  length.  Roads 
\of  this  character  should  have  the  stumps  removed  from  the  right- 
of-way  and  have  a  12-foot  crown,  ditched  on  both  sides,  and  if 
necessary  in  the  center,  water  from  the  latter  being  drawn  away 
at  least  every  50  feet.  Such  a  road  requires  from  80,000  to  100,000 
board  feet  of  stringers  per  mile,  11,000  linear  feet  of  8-inch  poles 
for  guard  rails,  2300  linear  feet  of  6-inch  poles  for  cross  braces, 
and  about  2000  pounds  of  spikes  and  drift  bolts. 

The  maintenance  cost  of  such  a  road  is  about  one-half  that 
for  a  logging  railroad. 

Several  forms  of  pole  roads  have  been  used,  among  them 
small  hewn  poles  called  puncheons  placed  crosswise;  two  or  three 
small  hewed  poles  laid  lengthwise  without  crossties;  and  the 
so-called  fore-and-aft  road  which  has  a  surface  made  from 
hewed  stringers  placed  on  crossties.  The  last  type  is  the  most 
satisfactory,  the  puncheon  road  having  too  much  vibration  and 
the  small  pole  road  providing  an  irregular  surface. 

The  fore-and-aft  road  may  have  the  traction  surface  under  each 
wheel  made  from  a  single  large  pole,  with  a  hewed  face  having  a 
flat  surface  of  16  or  more  inches,  or  it  may  be  made  from  two  or 
three  smaller  poles,  the  timbers  in  all  cases  being  supported  on 
crossties.  The  single  pole  road  is  considered  superior  to  the 
two-  or  three-pole  one  unless  the  faces  of  the  poles  are  hewed 
so  that  they  fit  closely  together  because  the  weight  of  the  load 
comes  on  the  inside  edges  of  the  poles,  and  has  a  tendency  to  cause 
them  to  turn  downward,  thus  loosening  the  spikes  and  spreading 
the  poles.  There  also  is  a  loss  in  traction  surface  on  the  two- 
and  three-pole  road  due  to  the  space  between  the  timbers.     Un- 


202  LOGGING 

less  the  poles  are  on  the  same  level,  the  tires  will  not  travel  on 
a  flat  surface  and  excessive  tire  wear  results. 

On  the  one-pole  road,  timbers  18  inches  or  more  in  diameter 
are  used  with  a  hewed  upper  face  16  or  more  inches  wide.  These 
are  laid  on  crossties  spaced  from  6  to  10  feet  apart,  depending 
on  the  solidity  of  the  bottom  and  the  weight  of  the  load.  Where 
two  poles  join,  the  under  side  of  each  is  hewed  flat  for  a  distance 
of  4  feet  on  either  side  of  the  joint  and  an  8-foot  timber  placed 
under  it.  The  stringers  also  are  notched  where  they  rest  on  the 
crossties  and  are  drift-bolted  to  them.  The  timbers  are  bedded 
for  about  one-half  their  diameter  and  the  center  and  sides  of  the 
grade  are  ditched  and  ample  cross  ditches  must  be  provided  to 
carry  the  water  away  from  the  grade.  Either  inside  or  outside 
guard  rails  may  be  used,  and  these  are  spiked  to  the  poles. 
Concrete  roads  have  been  suggested  as  a  substitute  for  pole  and 
plank  roads,  but  their  high  cost  has  deterred  operators  from  using 
them.  The  life  both  of  plank  and  fore-and-aft  roads  is  from 
three  to  four  years. 

Motor  truck  loading  is  done  either  with  a  crosshaul  and  animal 
draft,  or  with  a  loading  donkey  and  a  gin-pole.  The  latter 
method  is  preferred  on  extensive  operations  because  the  load  can 
be  placed  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes.  Since  the  maximum 
daily  output  per  truck  can  be  secured  only  when  the  loading 
and  unloading  time  is  kept  at  a  minimum  a  rapid  loading  rig  is 
necessary.  Winches  operated  by  the  truck  engine  have  been 
put  on  the  market  but  have  not  been  extensively  adopted  by 
loggers. 

The  most  common  unloading  method  is  to  elevate  the  outer 
side  of  the  roadbed  at  the  rollway  from  18  to  24  inches  which 
is  sufficient  to  cause  most  of  the  logs  to  roll  from  the  truck  when 
the  chock  blocks  are  removed. 

The  maximum  practical  grades  for  motor  truck  work  do  not 
exceed  6  per  cent  in  the  loaded  direction  and  12  per  cent  empty. 
Trucks  have  been  operated  on  grades  as  high  as  35  per  cent  by 
the  use  of  a  power  snubbing  device  which  lowers  the  loaded 
trucks  down  the  incline  and  pulls  the  empty  trucks  to  the  top. 

The  daily  capacity  of  trucks  is  dependent  on  the  size  of  truck, 
road  regulations,  grades,  distance,  and  size  of  timber.  A  5-ton 
truck  with  an  8^-ton  trailer  operating  over  private  roads  will 
haul  an  average  load  of  4000  board  feet.     The  same  truck  on 


WHEELED   VEHICLES  203 

public  roads  in  Washington  will  be  restricted  to  from  2400  to  3000 
board  feet,  depending  on  locality.  The  average  loading  time 
ranges  from  10  to  15  minutes,  the  unloading  time  10  minutes, 
and  the  average  time  required  per  mile,  10  minutes.  The  time 
required  for  a  round  trip  on  a  haul  of  1  mile,  therefore,  is  from  30 
to  35  minutes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   TO    CHAPTER   XH 

Drissen,  J.  P.:  Time  Study  of  Motor  Truck  Logging  of  Yellow  Pine. 
The  Timberman,  August,  1921,  p.  97. 

Knapp,  F.  M.:  Motor  Truck  Logging  Methods.  Bui.  No.  12,  Univ.  of 
Washington,  Engineering  Experiment  Station,  Seattle,  April,  1921. 

Mason,  Fred  R. :  Study  of  Daily  Production  of  Big  Wheels.  The  Timber- 
man,  April,  1921,  p.  39. 

Meiklejohn,  E.  N.:  Truck  Logging.  The  Timberman,  Oct.  1920,  pp. 
85  and  86. 

Van  Orsdel.  John  P. :  Plans  for  Motor  Truck  Logging.  The  Timberman, 
July,  1921,  pp.  97,  100,  and  102. 


CHAPTER  XIIP 
TRACTORS 

Tractors  are  used  by  the  logging  industry  as  a  substitute  for 
animal  draft  for  skidding,  for  hauling  logs  loaded  on  wagons 
and  trailers,  and  also  for  trailing  logs  in  slides.  Comparatively 
small  and  isolated  tracts  of  timber,  which  do  not  justify  the  build- 
ing of  a  railroad  often  present  an  opportunity  for  tractor  logging; 
also  stands  which  are  too  light  for  profitable  logging  by  steam 
machinery,  especially  if  the  timber  is  not  too  small  and  the  char- 
acter of  topography  or  bottom  are  unsuited  to  animal  logging. 
Logging  by  tractors  is  more  destructive  to  the  timber  left  on  the 
area  after  cutting  and  to  reproduction  than  animal  logging,  but 
it  is  less  destructive  than  power  logging  machinery. 

The  limited  knowledge  of  tractors  and  their  proper  use  has 
retarded  the  success  of  this  type  of  equipment  on  many  logging 
operations.  Many  breakdowns  could  be  eliminated  if  competent 
drivers  only  were  hired  and  they  were  made  financially  interested 
in  the  continuous  productive  run  of  the  machines. 

The  crawler  type-^  of  tractor  has  proved  to  be  better  adapted 
to  logging  work  than  the  wheeled  type,  because  the  latter  often 
is  useless  on  sandy,  soft  or  loose  forest  soils,  on  wet  clay,  and  on 
snow  and  ice,  since  it  has  a  tendency  to  mire  on  soft  and  to  slip 
on  hard  road  surfaces,  while  the  former  gives  satisfactory  results 
when  operated  on  such  bottoms,  due  chiefly  to  the  large  area  of 
traction  contact  with  the  ground  surface.  Tractors  are  not 
adapted  to  very  rough  topography,  but  in  some  cases  they  have 
been  operated  successfully  on  adverse  grades  as  high  as  15  per 
cent  or  more,  and  hence  they  may  be  substituted  for  logging 

1  Prepared  by  A.  Koroleff. 

2  Crawler  tractors  also  are  known  under  the  names  of  "track-layers"  or 
"caterpillars"  but  these  names  may  lead  to  misunderstanding  because  "cater- 
pillar" is  an  exclusive  trade  name  for  tractors  made  by  the  Holt  Manufac- 
turing Co.,  while  "track-layer"  also  is  a  term  used  to  designate  a  machine 
used  in  the  laying  of  railroad  tracks. 

204 


TRACTORS 


205 


railroad  spur  lines  on  up-grade  hauls  which  are  too  steep  for  a 
railr  )n(l. 

Prior  to  the  World  War  crawler  tractors  were  rarely  used  for 
logging  purposes,  but  at  the  present  time,  especially  in  the  hard- 
wood and  pine  regions,  there  are  2000  or  more  of  these  machines 
in  use.     Crawler  tractors  were  first  used  only  for  hauling  timber, 


Fig.  59. 


A  Holt  10-ton  Caterpillar  Tractor  showing  the  General  Features 
of  one  of  the  Traction  Members. 


but  they  are  now  employed  for  skidding  and  yarding,  for  con- 
struction work  on  logging  roads,  and  in  other  auxiliary  work. 

The  principle  of  the  crawler  device  was  invented  in  England 
about  150  years  ago,  but  its  successful  application  to  tractors 
was  made  in  America  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
when  a  steam  log  hauler  was  built  for  work  on  snow  and  iced 
roads.  The  crawler  traction  device  was  later  improved  and  suc- 
cessfully used  on  tractors  with  internal  combustion  motors. 
At  present  there  are  about  twenty  American  models  of  crawler 
tractors  which  are  used  by  loggers. 

The  modern  traction  device  of  a  crawler-type  tractor  has  steel 
links  or  shoes  pivoted  together  by  steel  pins  in  an  endless  belt  or 


206  LOGGING 

track  which  rotates  around  the  idler,  the  rollers,  and  the 
sprocket  driven  by  engine  power.  This  endless,  flexible  belt 
corresponds  to  the  rim  of  a  wheel  but  its  inner  face  serves  as  a  track 
on  which  the  machine  itself  travels  like  a  locomotive  on  a  rack- 
and-pinion  railroad.  Its  weight  is  carried  on  flanged  rollers,  and 
a  positive  drive  is  provided  by  the  meshing  of  the  driving  sprocket 
teeth  with  the  pins  of  the  track.  On  some  tractors  the  frames  of 
the  crawler  members  are  built  in  one  piece  and  are  rigid,  while  in 
others  the  frames  are  made  in  two  sections  so  pivoted  together 
that  the  traction  members  are  somewhat  flexible  in  order  that 
the  traction  device  may  better  adhere  to  an  uneven  road  surface. 
The  chief  features  of  a  crawler  tractor  are : 

(1)  A  larger  area  of  ground  contact  than  is  available  under 
any  other  principle  of  construction.  Modern  5-  and  10-ton 
machines  of  full  crawler  type,  i.  e.,  without  front  steering  wheels, 
have  traction  members  from  10  to  12  inches  wide  and  the  length 
of  track  in  contact  with  the  ground  may  be  as  great  as  7  feet. 

(2)  The  ground  pressure  of  a  crawler  tractor  is  extemely  low, 
ordinarily  from  4  to  9  pounds  per  square  inch.  This  is  many 
times  less  than  the  pressure  of  wheeled  tractors,  from  two  to  five 
times  less  than  the  ground  pressure  of  a  horse,  and  about  the  same 
as  the  pressure  of  a  man's  foot.  With  "swamp  special"  shoes, 
much  wider  than  the  standard  size,  the  ground  pressure  of  crawler 
tractors  may  be  decreased  to  2  or  3  pounds  per  square  inch, 
and  the  tractor  then  can  go  over  soft  and  swampy  places  where 
animals  could  not  be  used. 

(3)  The  long  crawler  members  enable  a  tractor  to  bridge 
uneven  areas,  which  results  in  a  great  ecomony  of  power  and  makes 
possible  the  successful  use  of  such  a  tractor  on  broken  ground, 
even  where  there  are  ditches  and  deep  holes.  Wheeled  tractors 
are  useless  under  such  conditions. 

(4)  The  ease  of  steering.  Many  tractors  which  are  mounted 
only  on  two  crawler  devices  may  be  turned  as  sharply  as  desired 
and  turned  around  almost  within  their  own  length.  This  is 
done  by  the  application  of  the  driving  power  forward  or  backward 
to  one  of  the  traction  members  while  the  other  one  is  slowed 
down  by  braking,  released,  or  completely  stopped. 

(5)  Crawler  tractors,  due  to  their  better  contact  with  the 
ground,  deliver  a  larger  per  cent  of  motor  power  to  the  draw-bar 
than  wheeled  tractors.    The  difference  in  favor  of  the  crawler 


TRACTORS  207 

type  increases  as  the  road  surface  becomes  woTse.  The  some- 
what complicated  construction  of  the  crawler  traction  device 
is  its  only  disadvantage  as  compared  to  wheeled  tractors. 

Modern  crawler-type  tractors  are  driven  by  internal  combustion 
motors,  and  those  used  in  logging  may  be  divided  into  two  groups, 
namely,  the  "full  crawler  tractors"  or  those  mounted  only  on 
two  traction  members,  and  those  having  the  front  part  of  the 
machine  supported  on  a  pair  of  sleds  for  snow  and  iced  roads  or  on 
steering  wheels.^ 

The  tractors  of  the  last  group  require  fairly  good  logging  roads; 
hence  they  are  not  practical  for  skidding  purposes.  They  often 
are  used  by  loggers  in  the  Northeast,  both  for  hauling  timber 
and  for  carrying  supplies  to  the  camps.  Crawler  tractors  with 
steering  wheels  or  sleds,  have  approximately  40  H.  P.  on  the 
draw-bar,  a  speed  ranging  from  2  to  6  miles  per  hour,  and  weigh 
about  10  tons.  Although  they  are  used  chiefly  for  draw-bar 
work  they  also  have  a  platform  about  5^  by  9  feet  in  size 
on  which  a  portion  of  the  load  may  be  carried.  In  New  Eng- 
land and  eastern  Canada  these  machines  have  largely  superseded 
steam  log  haulers  which  had  about  100  draw-bar  H.  P.,  a  working 
speed  of  about  4|  miles  per  hour,  and  a  weight  of  approximately 
18  tons. 

"Full  crawler  tractors"  are  the  type  best  adapted  to  logging 
because  they  are  not  handicapped  by  front  wheels  or  sleds,  and 
they  are  suitable  for  work  both  on  very  poor  roads  and  on  the 
forest  floor.  The  great  flexibility  of  these  machines,  which  is 
important  for  work  on  uneven  surfaces,  is  provided  by  an 
independent,  though  limited,  vertical  oscillation  of  the  traction 
members,  and  also  by  the  "three  point"  suspension  of  the  body, 
the  front  part  of  which  is  pivoted  to  the  middle  of  the  cross 
equalizing  bar,  the  ends  of  which  rest  on  the  frames  of  the 
crawler  members.  Spiral  springs  are  commonly  used  for  better 
cushion. 

Obstacles,  such  as  stumps  and  stones,  from  12  to  18  inches 
high,  may  be  readily  overcome  by  crawler  tractors. 

Full  crawler  tractors  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  accord- 
ing to  size,  typical  machines  for  each  group  having  the  following 
power : 

1  The  crawler  tractor  with  a  single  steering  wheel  is  not  adapted  for  log- 
ging though  formerly  it  was  occasionally  used. 


208  LOGGING 

2-ton  tractors         20  rated  brake  H.  P.     12  rated  draw-bar  H.  P. 
5-ton        "  30-40         "  18-25 

10-ton        "  60.  '*  40 

The  motors  have  four  four-cycle  vertical  cylinders,  which  have 
a  normal  speed  ranging  from  700  to  900  R.  P.  M.  Many  tractors 
have  three  speeds,  low  from  1  to  2  miles,  medium  from  2^  to 
3^,  and  high  speed  from  4  to  6  miles  per  hour.  Speed  is 
varied  in  much  the  same  way  that  it  is  on  motor-trucks.  Full 
crawler  tractors  have  no  differential.  Two  steering  clutches  of 
multiple  disc,  dry-plate  type,  provide  independent  and  positive 
control  of  each  traction  member. 

The  consumption  of  gasoline  in  logging  operations,  per  working 
day  of  10  hours,  averages  from  8  to  11  gallons  for  a  2-ton,  from 
15  to  25  gallons  for  a  5-ton,  and  from  25  to  35  gallons  for  a  10- 
ton  tractor.  Gasoline  is  used  as  a  fuel  in  most  cases,  since 
it  is  often  impractical  to  burn  cheaper  liquid  fuel,  even  in  tractors 
which  could  use  it,  because  the  life  of  the  motor  is  decreased  and 
cylinder  oil  costs  are  greater. 

The  lubricant  expense  usually  does  not  exceed  from  $1.50  to 
$2  daily  for  a  5-  or  10-ton  tractor.  Anti-friction  bearings 
are  extensively  used  in  these  machines.  Crawler  members  are 
well  adapted  for  work  in  mud,  and  their  flexible  track  requires 
no  lubrication. 

The  useful  life  of  a  tractor  on  a  logging  operation  is  from  3  to  5 
years  when  it  is  used  continuously.  The  depreciation  and 
maintenance  charges  vary  widely  with  the  conditions  and 
character  of  work,  the  care  received  and  the  make  of  the  trac- 
tor. Repair  bills  may  be  from  $2  to  $4  a  day,  especially  when  a 
crawler  tractor  on  a  logging  job  is  operated  by  a  man  who  is 
not  sufficiently  skilled  to  handle  intricate  machinery.  The  care 
of  tractors  at  the  camp  and  minor  repairs  often  are  made  by  the 
drivers,  but  when  there  are  three  or  more  machines  at  one  camp, 
an  expert  should  be  employed  to  do  this  work. 

Skidding  in  open  forests  may  be  done  with  crawler  tractors 
without  any  preparation  of  the  roads.  In  dense  forests  the  roads 
are  of  the  same  type  as  those  required  for  animal  logging.  Timber 
is  skidded  by  tractors  often  in  long  logs  or  in  tree  lengths  and  are 
cross-cut  at  the  landing  because  the  efficiency  of  skidding  as  well 
as  of  cross-cutting  is  increased.  Skidding  in  tree  lengths  may 
be  facilitated  also,  to  some  extent,  by  felling  trees  with  the  tops 


3 

2^ 


TRACTORS 


209 


in  the  direction  of  skidding  in  case  they  are  to  be  dragged  on  the 
ground,  or  in  the  opposite  direction  if  long  logs  are  skidded  with 
the  front  end  resting  on  some  form  of  a  log  carrier.  Dragging 
is  rarely  practiced  for  distances  exceeding  \  ox  \  mile.  How- 
ever, in  the  Appalachian  and  other  mountainous  regions,  a  number 
of  logs  may  be  coupled  together  in  a  "turn"  and  dragged  by  trac- 
tors for  long  distances  on  skidding  roads. 

Log  carriers   supporting  only  the  front  ends  of  the  logs,  and 


Fig.  60. 


A   10-Ton  Holt  Caterpillar  Tractor  drawing  Logs  loaded  on  a 
Caterpillar  Bummer.     Idaho. 


having  a  capacity  of  from  2000  to  4000  board  feet  are  used  in 
tractor  skidding  to  suit  different  conditions  and  seasons  of  the 
year.  Various  types  of  bummers,  dollies,  trailers,  go-devils, 
and  big  wheels,  which  differ  from  those  used  in  animal  logging 
chiefly  in  their  stronger  construction  and  larger  capacity,  also 
are  used.  Bummers  of  the  crawler  type  are  preferred  when 
hauling  on  soft  or  swampy  bottom,  or  when  hauling  very  heavy 
loads  on  bad  roads.  They  usually  are  of  all-steel  construction 
and  have  two  free-running  crawler-type  members  of  comparatively 
simple  construction,  and  a  single  or  double  bunk.     The  usual 


210 


LOGGING 


capacity  is  from  10  to  15  tons,  and  the  weight  from  2  to  3  tons. 
When  timber  is  moved  for  comparatively  long  distances  the 
logs  usually  are  loaded  on  wagons  of  greater  capacity  and  strength 
than  those  used  for  animal  draft.  Several  wagons  constitute  a 
load  or  train  for  one  tractor. 

Although  cable  skidding  by  tractors  has  not  passed  the  experi- 
mental stage,  some  machines  are  provided  with  a  winch  attachment 


Photograph  by  A.  Koroleff. 

Fig.  61.* — Loaded  4-wheeled  Log  Wagons  pulled  by  a  10-Ton  Holt  Tractor 
(left),  and  a  Tractor  with  Empty  Wagons  returning  to  the  Skidway  (right). 
Idaho. 


for  bringing  logs  out  of  hollows  and  swamps,  and  for  other  condi- 
tions where  better  work  can  be  done  with  a  cable  than  with  a 
direct  draw-bar  tractor  pull.  Some  crawler  tractors  have  a  two- 
drum  winch  in  order  to  make  possible  the  mechanical  out-haul 
of  the  skidding  cable.  The  speed  of  the  cable,  when  skidding, 
is  from  100  to  200  feet  per  minute,  the  larger  drums  having  a 
maximum  capacity  of  800  feet  of  f-inch  cable.  The  winch 
on  a  tractor  also  may  be  used  for  loading  timber,  for  clearing  and 
scraping  work  in  road  construction  and  for  stump-pulling. 


TRACTORS  211 

When  logs  are  loaded  from  a  yard,  a  gin-pole  may  be  used,  while 
logs  that  have  not  been  assembled  at  one  place  often  are  loaded 
by  means  of  a  crosshaul  or  by  rolling  them  by  hand  methods  upon 
the  vehicle  over  skids.  Animal  power  is  used  chiefly  for  oper- 
ating the  gin-pole  and  crosshaul,  although  some  tractors  are 
provided  with  a  loading  winch.  The  use  of  a  tractor  for  loading 
is  seldom  as  profitable  as  some  other  method  because  the  greatest 
efficiency  is  secured  from  the  machine  when  it  is  kept  running 
continuously  over  the  roads. 

The  rolling  resistance  of  a  given  road  varies  widely  with  its 
quality  and  condition  and  the  load  which  the  tractor  can  move 
may  be  influenced  greatly  by  the  type  of  vehicle,  if  any,  which 
is  used  to  support  the  logs.  Thus  on  smooth  hard  roads,  a  tractor 
can  haul  two  or  three  times  more  volume  of  logs  on  wagons  than 
it  can  drag  on  the  ground,  while  the  reverse  may  be  true  on  an 
uneven  or  wet  bottom  because  of  the  inequalities  of  the  ground 
surface  and  the  sinking  of  the  wheels  in  the  earth. 

There  are  so  many  types  of  tractors  used  by  loggers  and  the 
period  for  which  they  have  been  used  has  been  so  comparatively 
short  that  reliable  standards  of  average  output  are  not  available. 
The  following  table,  however,  will  give  an  approximate  idea  of 
the  maximum  loads  in  tons  which  tractors  can  move  under  given 
conditions. 

The  average  speed  of  crawler  tractors  when  hauling  timber,  is 
approximately  3  miles  per  hour  while  the  speed  without  a  load  is 
from  4  to  6  miles.  On  long  hauls  tractors  may  cover  from 
35  to  40  miles  in  10  hours  when  not  delayed  at  the  yard  landing. 
The  daily  mileage  of  tractors  on  short  hauls,  especially  in  skidding, 
is  much  less  than  on  long  hauls  due  to  the  increase  in  the  time 
lost  at  the  loading  and  discharging  points. 

The  relative  efficiency  of  tractors  as  compared  to  animals 
depends  on  many  factors.^  Other  conditions  being  equal,  the 
horse  has  advantages  over  the  tractor  in  work  which  is  not  tire- 
some and  which  only  occasionally  requires  a  short  and  powerful 
effort,  while  the  opposite  is  true  on  long  hauls  and  on  continuous 
adverse  grades.     As  compared  to  a  tractor,  animals  are  handi- 

1  See  Tractor  Skidding  in  the  Inland  Empire  by  Frank  J.  Klobucher,  The 
Timberman,  July,  1922,  pp.  114,  116,  and  118;  also  Tractor  and  Horse  Skid- 
ding in  the  Inland  Empire  by  James  W.  Girard,  The  Timberman,  Nov., 
1922.  pp.  66,  68,  70  and  72. 


212 


LOGGING 


Table  VII 

APPROXIMATE    MAXIMUM    TRACTIVE    POWER    OF    CRAWLER 

TRACTORS' 


Approximate  gross  load  in 

Approximate  gross  load  in  tons 

tons  which  a  5-ton  crawler 

which  a  10-ton  crawler  tractor 

tractor  with  actual  draw-bar 

with  actual  draw-bar  H.  P.  40, 

H.  P.  25,  can  move  at  low 

can   move  at   low   speed  —  2 

Average  rolling 

speed  —  2  miles  per  hour 

miles  per  hour 

Character  of 

resistance  of 

road  surface 

level  road  in 

lbs.  per  ton 

Adverse  grade,  per  cent 

Level 

5 

10 

20 

Level 

5 

10 

20 

Earth  road.. 

150 

31 

17 

11 

5 

49 

25 

15 

6| 

Deep  sand 

or  wet  clay 

350 

13 

y 

7 

3i 

21 

14 

10 

41 

1  These  values  are  computed  in  the  following  manner,  and  the  same  method  may  be  used  in 
approximating  the  tractive  power  for  speeds  other  than  2  miles. 

Example:   Type  of  bottom,  earth  road.     Grade  10  per  cent.     Resistance  per  ton;    rolling  150 

pounds,  axle  4  pounds,  grade  20  X  10  =  200  pounds,  total  354  pounds.      Grade  resistance  of  a 

10-ton  tractor  on  a  10  per  cent  grade,  20  X  10  X  10  =  2000  pounds.     Draw-bar  pull   (pounds) 

,      ,.  .  .      .  40  X  375 

of  a  40  horse  power  tractor  =  - 


■  =  7500.     (The  value  375  is  obtained  as  follows: 


33,000  X  60  _  g^g 
5280 
in  which  33,000  represents  foot  pounds  per  minute  per  horse  power;  60  equals  minutes  per  hour, 
and  5280  equals  feet  per  mile.)  The  net  draw-bar  pull  of  a  40  h.  p.  tractor  at  a  speed  of  2  miles  per 
hour  equals  7500  —  2000  or  5500  pounds.  The  gross  load  in  tons  equals  5500  -i-  354  or  ISj  tons. 
If  vehicles  weighing  2  tons  each  are  used  with  tractors  in  hauling  timber  weighing  5  pounds  per 
board  foot,  then  on  a  10  per  cent  grade  a  40  horse  power  tractor  can  haul  4600  board  feet  on  two 

(31,000  -  8000  \ 
=  4600  j. 

capped  where  they  cannot  get  proper  footing,  such  as  on  loose 
ground  and  in  swamps,  and  also  in  heavy  work  when  several 
animals  must  be  used  together,  since  much  energy  is  then  wasted, 
due  to  lack  of  simultaneous  action.  The  expense  of  feeding 
animals  when  idle,  their  lower  average  speed,  limited  working 
period,  and  the  necessity  for  hiring  animal  drivers,  also  are  dis- 
advantages connected  with  the  use  of  animal  draft.  Studies 
of  logging  operations  where  horses  and  tractors  work  under 
identical  conditions  indicate  that  the  ratio  between  the  efficiency 
of  horses  and  tractors  varies  within  wide  limits,  although  in  most 
cases,  in  hauling,  one  horse  is  equivalent  to  two  or  three  tractor 
draw-bar  H.  P.     This  is  due  chiefly  to  the  ability  of  a  horse  to 


TRACTORS  213 

increase  its  pull  for  a  very  short  distance  and  for  a  very  brief 
period  from  three  to  four  times  its  normal  for  continuous  work, 
while  the  margin  between  the  rated  draw-bar  H.  P.  and  actual 
maximum  for  tractors  is  comparatively  insignificant.^  On  the 
other  hand,  a  tractor  develops  its  normal  power  for  any  length 
of  time  while  animals,  especially  under  adverse  conditions,  be- 
come fatigued,  and  then  decrease  their  pull  below  normal  in 
addition  to  utilizing  a  part  of  the  working  time  for  rest. 

Large  tractors  are  preferred  to  small  ones,  provided  they  can 
be  worked  to  capacity,  because  one  driver  has  control  over  more 
power,  and  the  wage  cost  per  thousand  board  feet  is  less.  How- 
ever, there  are  about  as  many  5-ton  as  10-ton  tractors  used  in 
logging  and  some  loggers  believe  they  are  more  efficient  for 
comparatively  short  distances.  The  2-ton  crawler  tractors, 
though  sometimes  used  in  the  forest,  are  too  small  for  most  kinds 
of  logging  work. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO   CHAPTER   XIII 

BrighaM;  E.  J.:    Tractor  Logging.     The  Timberman,  Oct.  1920,  pp.  86 

and  87. 
GiRARD,  James  W.:   Tractor  and  Horse  Skidding  in  Inland  Empire.     The 

Timberman,  Nov.,  1922,  pp.  66,  68,  70  and  72. 
Klobucher,  Frank  J.:    Tractor  Skidding  Studies  in  the  Inland  Empire. 

The  Timberman,  July,  1922,  pp.  114,  116,  and  118. 

1  A  test  of  tractors  at  the  University  of  Nebraska  showed  that  some  of  the 
best  crawler  tractors  may  be  overloaded  30  per  cent;  in  actual  work,  however, 
crawler  tractors  will  not  develop  much  more  than  their  rated  power,  and  in 
any  case  this  margin  is  very  small  as  compared  to  a  possible  300  per  cent 
increase  of  pull  by  a  horse. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
POWER   SKIDDING! 

The  first  patent  on  power  skidding  machinery  in  the  United 
States  was  granted  on  November  13,  1883,  to  Horace  Butters  of 
Ludington,  Michigan,  and  covered  an  overhead  cableway  de- 
signed to  get  logs  out  of  "pot  holes"  and  swampy  places  in  the 
white  pine  forests.  The  power  for  operating  the  machine  was 
supplied  by  a  8j-  by  10-inch  3-drum  pile  driver,  and  the  cables 
were  of  manila  rope.  Perceiving  the  feasibility  of  using  a 
machine  of  this  type  in  the  cypress  forests  of  North  Carolina,  the 
inventor  built  a  machine  which  had  the  spar  and  other  equip- 
ment mounted  on  a  scow  which  was  floated  in  the  bayous  and 
sloughs.  It  did  not  completely  solve  the  loggers'  problems  since 
it  was  limited  to  a  range  of  from  700  to  800  feet  and  conse- 
quently could  not  reach  much  of  the  timber. 

In  1889,  William  Baptist  put  a  ground  system  in  operation 
in  a  Louisiana  swamp.  It  consisted  of  two  large  drums  and  an 
engine  and  boiler  mounted  on  a  scow,  from  which  an  endless 
cable  passed  out  into  the  forest  for  a  distance  of  ^  mile.  This 
was  later  developed  into  the  modern  "slack-rope"  system  now 
used  on  pullboats. 

A  third  method  called  the  "snaking  system"  was  a  later  de- 
velopment in  the  pine  forests  of  the  South. 

CABLEWAY   OR   OVERHEAD    SKIDDING    EQUIPMENT 

Overhead  logging  systems  have  been  used  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  United  States  for  many  years  and  are  now  extensively  used 
in  the  Northwest,  both  for  yarding  and  as  a  transportation  system 
for  bringing  logs  from  the  yarding  engine  to  the  railroad.  In  the 
latter  capacity  it  functions  as  an  aerial  tram.  The  railroad 
mileage  can  be  reduced  by  using  this  method  of  intermediate 

1  See  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region,  by  W.  H.  Gibbons,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture,  Bui.  No.  711,  Washington,  1918. 

214 


POWER  SKIDDING 


215 


transportation  which  is  of  special  importance  in  regions  of  rough 
topography  where  grade  construction  is  costly. 

The  cableway  system  is  especially  adapted  for  logging  in 
swampy  regions  where  the  bottom  is  too  soft  for  animals ;  in  very 
brushy  sections;  on  steep  and  rocky  slopes;  in  taking  timber 
across  canyons  and  gorges,  or  in  bringing  it  up  out  of  a  canyon  to 
a  plateau  or  lowering  it  into  a  valley ;  and  in  handling  dense  stands 


Fig.  62. 


-  A  Steel-spar  Cableway  Skidder  operating  in   Southern   Yellow 
Pine.     The  loading  boom  is  shown  at  the  left.     Texas. 


of  small-  or  medium-sized  timber,  especially  when  the  physical 
conditions  render  ground  systems  difficult  and  expensive  to 
operate.  It  is  operated  to  best  advantage  when  the  topog- 
raphy is  such  that  logging  railroads  can  be  laid  out  at  regular 
intervals,  but  it  is  also  used  in  very  rough  regions  where  the 
railroad  must  be  placed  in  the  valley  or  at  the  head  of  the  slope. 
Lidgerwood  System.  —  The  pioneer  overhead  system  was  the 
Lidgerwood  which  is  the  type  used  chiefly  in  the  East.  Western 
loggers  use  this  method  but  they  also  have  developed  numerous 
others.  This  type  is  built  both  for  short-distance  and  for  long- 
distance skidding,  and  may  use  a  tree  for  a  head  spar  or  a  steel 


216  LOGGING 

boom  which  may  be  lowered  when  the  machine  is  moved  from 
one  set-up  to  another.  Some  types  also  are  built  to  operate  two 
overhead  lines  from  one  spar.  The  one  which  uses  a  tree  for 
a  head  spar  and  which  skids  for  comparatively  short  distances 
has  a  main  cable  from  1  to  Ij  inches  in  diameter  suspended 
between  two  supports  known  as  the  "head  spar"  and  the  "tail 
spar."  These  usually  are  from  600  to  750  feet  apart,  although 
spans  of  5200  feet  have  been  used  in  mountainous  country. 
Head  spar  trees  are  located  along  the  railroad  at  intervals  of  ap- 
proximately 1000  feet.  They  are  selected  by  the  foreman  before 
felling  operations  begin,  must  be  straight  and  sound,  and  should 
have  a  minimum  diameter  of  18  inches  at  60  feet  above  ground. 
In  order  to  make  the  spar  more  stable  the  trees  are  topped  before 
the  rigging  is  placed. 

A  heavy  steel  spar  mounted  on  the  skidder  car  now  often 
replaces  the  head  spar  tree  required  by  the  earlier  type  and 
is  so  constructed  that  it  can  be  lowered  to  facilitate  moving  the 
skidder  from  one  set-up  to  another.  This  spar,  for  relatively 
short-distance  skidding,  is  about  75  feet  high  and  is  so  adjusted 
that  it  can  be  lowered  upon  the  end  of  the  loading  boom  when 
the  machine  is  moved  from  one  set-up  to  another.^  The  machines 
used  in  skidding  for  distances  of  several  thousand  feet  usually 
are  of  a  different  type.  The  booms  are  either  cylindrical  or 
square  in  cross  section  and  the  base  rests  upon  the  framework 
of  the  skidder.  When  the  machine  is  moved  the  spar  is  lowered 
upon  an  empty  car  placed  in  front.  The  placement  of  the  blocks, 
the  guying  of  the  steel  spar  and  the  adjustment  of  the  main 
cable  after  it  has  been  placed  on  the  ground  ready  for  connecting 
up,  requires  from  15  to  30  minutes,  while  a  day  is  needed  to  take 
down  the  tackle,  move  the  skidder,  and  adjust  the  blocks  on  a 
head  spar  tree.  The  great  weight  of  the  steel  spar  skidder  makes 
it  unsuitable  for  use  on  a  light  or  poorly  constructed  logging 
railroad. 

Tail  trees  are  selected  before  felling  begins,  and  should  be 
from  150  to  250  feet  apart  and  at  least  18  inches  in  diameter  at 
30  feet  above  ground. 

One  end  of  the  main  cable  is  passed  around  the  tail  tree  at  a 

height  of  25  or  30  feet  and  is  then  carried  to  a  stump  or  tree  in 

the  rear  to  which  it  is  made  fast.     The  tail  tree  is  braced  with 

1  See  Fig.  62. 


/ 


POWER  SKIDDING 


217 


this  cable  and  also  with  an  additional  guy  rope.  The  other  end 
of  the  main  cable  terminates  in  an  eye  near  the  head  spar  tree 
and  is  connected,  by  means  of  a  clevis,  to  an  extension  cable 
which  passes  through  a  block  attached  to  the  head  spar  tree. 
The  extension  cable  is  fastened  to  a  stump 
in  the  rear  by  a  "block  and  fall"  attach- 
ment, by  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  drum  on 
the  engine,  the  main  cable  is  tightened. 

The  head  spar  tree  is  also  braced  by 
cables  as  shown  in  Fig.  64. 

The  trolley;  which  travels  back  and  forth 
on  the  main  cable  is  operated  by  an  out- 
haul  rope  and  a  skidding  line.  The  outhaul 
rope  is  |-  or  f-inch  in  diameter  and  passes 
from  a  drum  on  the  engine,  through  a  block 
on  the  head  spar  tree,  through  the  trolley 
and  also  through  a  block  on  the  tail  tree, 
after  which  it  is  brought  back  and  attached 
to  the  rear  of  the  trolley.  It  serves  to 
draw  the  trolley  out  along  the  main  cable. 
The  f -  or  |-inch  skidding  line  passes  from  a 
drum  on  the  engine,  through  a  block  on  the 

head  spar  tree,  then  through  a  block  on  the  trolley.  It  serves 
as  a  point  of  attachment  for  tongs  or  other  log-holding  devices. 
The  logs  are  dragged  up  to  the  main  cable  by  this  line,  which 


TAIL  TREE 


Fig.  63.  —  A  Tail  Tree 
showing  the  Method  of 
attaching  the  Blocks 
to  the  Tree;  also  the 
Arrangement  of  the 
Guy  Lines. 


By  permission  of  the  Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co. 

Fig.  64.  —  A  Cableway  Skidder,  showing  the  Arrangement  of  the  Lines  for 
Skidding  and  Loading. 


also  suspends  them  and  serves  to  return  the  trolley  to  the  head 
spar  tree. 

When  the  trolley  is  run  out  from  the  head  spar  tree,  the  skid- 
ding line  sags  between  the  two  points  of  support  and  its  weight 


218 


LOGGING 


pulls  the  tongs  against  the  trolley.  The  line  is  run  out  by  means 
of  a  f-inch  slack-pulling  line  which  passes  from  a  drum  on  the 
skidder  through  a  block  on  the  head  spar  tree,  thence  around  a 
small  sheave  in  the  trolley  and  back  in  the  direction  of  the  head 


Fig.  65.  —  Cutting  the  Top  from  a  Head  Spar  on  which  is  placed  the  Main 
Cable   Rigging  for  a   Cableway   Skidder.     Cypre-ss   Forest,    Louisiana. 

spar.^  The  free  end  of  the  line  is  attached  to  a  swivel,  through 
which  the  skidding  line  passes.  A  button  is  fastened  on  the  skid- 
ding line  between  the  swivel  and  the  carriage  block.  When 
slack  is  desired,  the  slack-pulling  line  is  drawn  in,  which  pulls 
the  swivel  against  the  button  and  draws  the  skidding  line  towards 
the  trolley  and  thus  lowers  the  end  of  the  line  to  the  ground. 
The  distance  of  the  l)utton  from  the  end  of  the  skidding  line  may 
be  adjusted  to  give  any  amount  of  slack  desired.  This  equipment 
has  replaced  the  five  or  six  men  who  were  required  for  pulling 
slack  in  the  earlier  types. 

1  See  Fig.  66. 


POWER  SKIDDING 


219 


Power  for  operating  the  cableway  system  is  provided  by  a 
vertical,  high-pressure  boiler  and  a  pair  of  engines  mounted  on 
a  steel  frame  which  is  supported  on  two  sets  of  trucks,  each  of 
which  is  pivoted.  The  machine  is  moved  from  one  set-up  to 
another  by  means  of  a  locomotive.  On  arrival  at  the  location 
where  it  is  to  be  used,  the  frame  is  elevated  above  the  rails  by 
hydraulic  jacks,  the  trucks  turned  in  a  quarter  circle,  and  a 
short  span  of  track  placed  under  each  truck.  The  machine  is 
then  lowered  and  shunted  off  to  one  side  of  the  railroad  by  the 


Skidding  Carriage 


Fig.  66. 


The   Lidgerwood   Skidding   Carriage,   and   the   Arrangement  of 
Operatiixg  Cables  and  Slack-pulling  Line. 


side  of  the  head  spar  tree,  where  it  is  blocked  up  and  remains 
until  the  next  move  is  made.  This  leaves  the  main  railroad  track 
clear  for  the  operation  of  logging  trains. 

Some  steel  spar  machines  move  about  under  their  own  power 
while  others  are  moved  on  flat  cars  of  special  design  by  a  locomotive. 
In  the  first  case  the  machine  is  side-tracked  at  the  set-up  so  as 
to  leave  the  main  line  clear,  while  in  the  second  case  the  machine 
remains  on  the  main  line  and  is  elevated  above  the  track  by 
means  of  hydraulic  jacks  and  each  corner  is  supported  on  blocks. 
When  the  skidder  has  been  adjusted  in  position,  the  carrying 
cars  are  pushed  to  the  rear  of  the  machine  so  that  empty  log 
cars  can  be  spotted  under  the  loading  boom. 

The  three  main  drums  on  the  skidder  are  arranged  in  a  row  in 
front  of  the  boiler.  The  forward  drum  handles  the  slack  pulling 
cable,  the  middle  one  the  outhaul  rope  and  the  rear  one  the 
skidding  line. 

In  operation,  the  outhaul  and  skidding  drums  are  interlocked, 
and  when  the  outhaul  rope  is  wound  on  its  drum,  the  trolley  is 
drawn  out  towards  the  tail  tree,  carrying  with  it  the  skidding 
line  and  the  slack-pulling  line.  The  speed  of  the  outhaul  line 
usually  is  from.  1200  to  1800  feet,  although  it  sometimes  is  as 


220 


LOGGING 


high  as  3000  feet  per  minute.  When  the  trolley  reaches  the 
point  at  which  logs  are  to  be  secured  the  drums  are  stopped  and 
the  interlocking  device  freed.  When  the  slack-pulling  line  is 
wound  on  its  drum  it  operates  the  slack  puller  which  runs  out 
the  slack  for  the  skidding  line.  The  latter  is  then  carried  to  a  log, 
or  logs,  which  are  attached  to  it  by  tongs  or  chokers.  Logs  can 
be  drawn  in  a  distance  of  from  60  to  75  feet  on  either  side  of  the 
main  cable  by  the  attachment  of  short  extensions  to  the  main 
skidding  line.  When  the  logs  have  been  pulled  in  near  the  main 
cable  the  short  lines  are  detached  and  the  logs  coupled  directly 


Fig.  67. 


By  permission  of  the  Lidgerwood  Mfy.  Co. 

Method  of  Shifting  the  Main  Cable  from  One  Run  to  Another. 


by  tongs  or  chokers  to  the  skidding  line,  which  is  then  wound  in, 
and  the  log  elevated  wholly  or  partially  from  the  ground.  This 
is  accomplished  by  holding  the  outhaul  in  a  fixed  position  by  a 
friction  brake,  until  the  log  is  in  the  position  desired.  The 
skidding  and  outhaul  drums  are  then  interlocked  and  as  the 
skidding  line  is  hauled  in,  the  outhaul  rope  runs  out,  and  the  log 
is  held  suspended.  On  arrival  at  the  railroad  the  logs  are  dropped 
in  reach  of  a  loading  cable,  and  the  trolley  again  returned  for 
another  load. 

Logging  rotates  around  the  head  spar  tree  and  from  18  to  22 
tail  trees  are  required  for  each  set-up,  an  area  of  from  25  to  40 
acres  being  logged  from  one  spot. 

When  the  steel  spar  skidder  is  used  it  is  not  feasible  to  log  in 
a  complete  circle  because  of  the  difficulty  of  operating  lines  on 
the  rear  side  of  the  machine.  As  a  rule,  an  arc  of  from  275  to 
300  degrees  is  covered. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  fouling  of  the  cables  in  very  brushy 
regions  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  cut  runs  5  or  6  feet  wide, 


POWER  SKIDDING  221 

extending  from  the  head  spar  to  each  tail  tree.  This  work  is 
done  a  short  time  in  advance  of  skidding.  One  man  can  cut  the 
runs  when  the  brush  is  of  medium  size. 

Two  main  cables  are  used  on  spans  less  than  2500  feet.  This 
saves  the  cable  since  its  ends  are  reversed  at  each  set  up,  but 
when  the  spans  may  vary  several  hundred  feet  in  length,  the 
difficulty  of  taking  care  of  the  surplus  cable  on  the  shorter  hauls 
is  a  drawback.  While  one  main  cable  is  in  use,  the  rigging  crew, 
three  men,  is  at  work  preparing  the  new  tail  tree  and  placing  the 
extra  main  cable  in  position  on  the  next  run.  When  the  timber 
available  to  one  run  is  skidded,  the  main  cable  is  dropped  to  the 
ground  and  disconnected  from  the  main  cable  extension;  the 
trolley  is  placed  on  the  new  cable,  which  is  then  connected 
to  the  cable  extension,  and  the  whole  drawn  taut  for  operation. 
It  requires  from  15  to  30  minutes  to  make  this  change.  The 
rigging  crew  then  proceeds  to  transfer  the  extra  main  cable  to 
the  next  run.  A  block  is  placed  on  the  new  tail  tree  and  a  f- 
inch  cable  is  dragged  from  the  engine  out  over  the  new  run,  either 
by  hand  or  by  a  horse.  It  is  then  passed  through  the  block 
on  the  new  tail  tree,  and  finally  through  a  block  on  the  tail  tree 
just  abandoned.  The  end  of  the  small  cable  is  attached  to  the 
main  cable  and  by  winding  the  former  on  a  drum  of  the  engine, 
the  main  cable  is  dragged  around  into  the  new  run,  having  re- 
versed ends.  It  is  then  made  ready  for  use  by  attaching  it  to 
the  tail  tree. 

A  different  procedure  is  followed  in  mountainous  regions  in 
which  the  length  of  span  may  vary  greatly.  One  main  cable 
only  is  used  and  this  is  carried  on  a  reel  drum  on  the  skidder. 
This  drum  is  actuated  by  a  special  compound-geared  tensioning 
engine  having  two  speeds,  high  for  pulling  in  the  main  cable 
when  runs  are  changed  and  low  for  tightening  and  tensioning 
the  main  cable.  The  drum  capacity  on  the  longest  range 
machines  is  5200  feet  of  1^  main  cable,  when  a  relay  system 
or  a  support-passing  trolley  is  used.  The  relay  method  was 
introduced  about  ten  years  ago  in  the  Appalachian  region 
to  log  hollows  and  other  places  which  were  not  accessible  with 
single  spans  and  to  reach  which  would  require  a  prohibitive  cost 
of  railroad  construction.  An  intermediate  tree  spar  was  selected 
on  the  ridge  top  that  was  to  be  crossed,  or  at  some  convenient 
point  in  the  cove  that  was  to  be  logged.^  The  main  cable  and 
1  See  Fig.  68. 


222  LOGGING 

the  skidding  lines  were  then  run  from  the  skidder  to  the  tail 
tree,  the  former  being  supported  on  the  intermediate  spar  tree. 
The  carriage  was  placed  on  the  main  cable  between  the  tail  tree 
and  the  intermediate  spar  and  the  logs  were  then  skidded  to  the 
latter.  When  the  area  between  these  two  supports  had  been 
logged,  the  trolley  was  shifted  to  the  skidder  side  of  the  inter- 
mediate spar  and  the  logs  then  brought  to  the  railroad.  Timber 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  tail  tree  sometimes  was  skidded  to  it 


Fig.  68.  —  A  Logging  Chance  sliowing  the  Use  of  an  Overhead  Cableway 
System  in  bringing  Timber  over  a  Ridge  by  relaying 

by  animals  and  the  range  of  the  machine  thus  greatly  increased. 
A  special  type  of  trolley  which  can  automatically  pass  the  sup- 
port on  the  intermediate  spar  has  been  put  on  the  market  and 
does  away  with  the  necessity  of  relaying  the  logs.  The  trolley 
has  two  track  sheaves  which  ride  on  the  main  cable.  Under 
each  main  sheave  below  the  cable  there  is  a  smaller  and  wider 
sheave  which  is  mounted  on  a  pivoted  arm  which,  by  tension, 
holds  the  lower  sheaves  directly  under  the  carrying  sheaves. 
This  prevents  the  trolley  from  leaving  the  cable.  The  support 
at  the  intermediate  spar  is  triangular  in  shape,  the  base  of  the 


POWER  SKIDDING  223 

triangle  being  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  cable  and  the 
support  being  attached  to  the  side  of  the  triangle  next  to  the  spar. 
When  the  trolley  reaches  the  intermediate  support,  the  lower 
sheave  follows  along  the  side  of  the  triangle  to  the  apex  and  in  so 
doing  widens  the  distance  between  the  upper  and  lower  sheave 
so  that  the  trolley  will  pass  the  hanger.  As  soon  as  the  latter  is 
passed  the  two  sheaves  come  together  and  close  the  gap.  Since 
the  trolley  is  longer  than  the  cable  support  on  the  intermediate 
spar,  both  top  sheaves  are  not  on  the  support  at  one  time  and, 
therefore,  it  is  impossible  for  the  trolley  to  leave  the  cable. 

The  crew  for  operating  a  cableway  skidder  with  a  slack  pulling 
device  consists  of  13  or  14  men,  as  follows : 

1  skidder  leverman  1  head  rigger 

1  fireman  2  rigging  helpers 

1  tong  hooker  1  tong  unhooker 

1  or  2  helpers  / 1  run  cutter 

j     1  signal  man  '  1  loading  leverman 

^    1  top  loader  1  ground  loader 


The  daily  output  of  the  Lidgerwood  type  of  skidder  in  the 
cypress  region  is  from  35,000  to  40,000  feet,  in  the  Northwest 
from  50,000  to  80,000  feet,  in  the  mountains  of  West  Virginia 
on  long  spans  from  30,000  to  35,000  feet,  and  when  used  as  a 
relay  system  from  25,000  to  30,000  board  feet.  These  figures 
are  averages  only,  since  the  output  is  influenced  to  a  marked 
degree  by  the  size  and  density  of  timber,  the  length  of  span,  and 
the  topography  of  the  country. 

MacFarlane  System.^  —  This  was  developed  in  the  West  pri- 
marily for  logging  steep  slopes,  up  or  down  which  logs  could  not 
be  successfully  taken  by  the  ground  methods  in  general  use. 
It  has  been  used  successfully  for  yarding  when  the  span  was  2500 
feet.  It  is  also  now  used  for  logging  in  rolling  country  and  to 
move  logs  from  the  ground  and  high-lead  yarders  to  the  railroad, 
a  process  known  as  "swinging."' 

This  system  uses  a  Ij-  to  l|-inch  main  cable  which  passes 
from  a  drum  on  the  engine  up  to  and  through  a  block  in  the  head 
spar,  thence  to  and  through  a  block  on  the  tail  spar  tree,  the  end 

'  See  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region,  by  W.  H.  Gibbons.  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture,  Bui.  No.  711,  and  The  Timberman,  April,  1911,  p.  49,  and 
May  1912,  p.  27. 

2  See  page  245. 


224 


LOGGING 


being  fastened  to  a  stump  at  the  rear.     Both  the  head  spar  and 
tail  spar  tree  are  guyed  with  four  Hnes. 

The  trolley  or  carriage  is  triangular  in  shape  with  two  16-  by 
3-inch  sheaves;  with  a  clevis  at  the  apex  to  which  chokers  are 
attached;  and  also  with  a  clevis  on  each  edge  of  the  block  to 
which  the  haul-back  and  haul-in  lines  are  attached.  The  trolley 
is  drawn  towards  the  head  spar  by  means  of  a  haul-in  line  which 
passes  from  a  drum  on  the  engine  up  to  and  through  a  block 


Fig.  69.  —  The  MacFarlane  Skyline  System  of  Overhead  Power  Logging. 

on  the  head  spar  and  is  then  fastened  to  a  clevis  on  the  side  of  the 
trolley  next  to  the  spar  tree.  The  trolley  is  drawn  out  towards 
the  tail  tree  by  means  of  a  haul-back  line  which  leads  from  a 
drum  on  the  engine,  through  blocks  placed  at  one  side  of  the  run, 
to  a  block  on  the  tail  tree  or  to  some  other  convenient  point  of 
attachment,  and  is  then  brought  back  and  fastened  to  a  clevis 
on  the  side  of  the  trolley  next  to  the  tail  spar  tree. 

When  skidding  is  in  progress  the  main  cable  is  pulled  taut, 
and  the  trolley  drawn  out  to  the  desired  point  by  means  of  the 
haul-back  line.  The  main  cable  is  then  slacked  off  until  the  trolley 
is  lowered  to  the  ground.  The  trolley  and  main  cable  are  then 
dragged  to  the  log  if  it  is  at  one  side  of  the  center  of  the  run. 
When  the  log  has  been  fastened  to  the  trolley  by  means  of  chokers, 
the  main  line  is  tightened  and  held  in  place  by  powerful  drum 
brakes  and  the  log  brought  to  the  head  spar  tree  by  the  haul-in 


POWER  SKIDDING 


225 


line,  where  the  log  is  lowered  to  the  ground  by  slackening  the 
main  cable.  As  logging  progresses  the  outer  block  through  which 
the  haul-back  line  passes  is  changed  so  that  the  trolley  and  main 
cable  always  can  be  pulled  away  from  the  center  of  the  run. 
Logs  may  be  successfully  side-lined  for  150  feet. 

More  power  is  needed  to  elevate  the  logs  than  is  required  in  some 
other  overhead  systems,  since  both  the  weight  of  the  main  cable 

^Three  Sheave  Tree  Jack 

^In.  Auto-Lubricating  Sky-Line  Block 
Win.  Auto-Lubricating  Sky-Line  Block 

\* 


Fig.  70. 


From  Bui.  711,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

The  North  Bend  System  of  Overhead  Logging. 


and  of  the  logs  must  be  raised.  The  daily  capacity  of  a  machine 
of  this  type  is  from  50,000  to  100,000  board  feet,  depending  upon 
slope  conditions,  log  size,  and  length  of  span. 

Previous  to  a  change  in  runs,  the  tail  tree  spar  in  the  next 
run  to  be  logged  is  chosen  and  properly  guyed.  When  logging 
on  one  run  is  completed  the  main  cable  is  pulled  to  the  head- 
spar  tree.  One  end  of  the  haul-back  line  is  then  attached  to  a 
small  cable,  called  a  straw  line,  which  has  previously  been  pulled 
out  over  the  new  run  and  when  the  straw  line  is  pulled  in,  the 
haul-back  line  is  drawn  out  through  a  block  on  the  tail  spar 
tree  and  back  to  the  head  spar. 

North  Bend  System.^  —  This  is  used  both  for  yarding  and  for 
1  See  Fig.  70. 


226  LOGGING 

swinging.  The  standing  line  either  is  stretched  between  a  head 
spar  and  a  tail  tree  with  the  ends  anchored  to  stumps,  or  it  leads 
from  a  drum  on  the  engine  to  a  block  on  the  head  spar  and  thence 
to  the  tail  tree,  behind  which  it  is  anchored  to  a  stump.  When 
the  latter  method  of  supporting  the  standing  line  is  used,  a  block 
purchase  is  needed  to  relieve  the  strain  on  the  engine. 

The  standing  line  ranges  in  size  from  Ij  to  1^  inches, 
depending  on  the  length  of  span  and  the  maximum  size  of  the 
logs  handled.  A  Ij-inch  line  has  proved  large  enough  for 
spans  of  1500  feet  and  for  logs  containing  2000  board  feet. 

The  trolley  has  two  14-inch  sheaves,  with  a  clevis  on  the  lower 
end  to  which  the  skidding  line  is  attached.  This  line  usually 
is  Ig  inches  in  diameter  and  its  length  is  dependent  both 
on  the  length  of  span  between  the  head  spar  and  the  tail  tree, 
and  on  the  distance  logs  are  yarded  on  either  side  of  the  standing 
line,  which  may  be  from  150  to  200  feet. 

The  haul-back_or  trip  line  is  f-  or  f-inch  in  diameter  and 
passes  from  fhe  drum  on  the  engine,  through  a  block  on  the  head 
spar,  then  through  blocks  placed  on  the  edge  of  the  skidding  area 
to  a  corner  block  near  the  logs  which  are  being  yarded,  thence 
to  a  fall  block  placed  in  a  bight  of  the  skidding  line.  The  corner 
block  is  so  placed  that  the  fall  block,  to  which  both  the  haul- 
back  line  and  the  butt  chain  are  attached,  can  be  drawn  to  any 
point  where  a  log  is  to  be  secured. 

The  engine  used  most  successfully  with  this  system  is  similar 
to  that  for  the  MacFarlane.  The  usual  capacity  of  the  skidding 
line  drum  is  2700  feet  and  that  of  the  haul-back  line  drum 
3500  feet.  The  yarding  speed  is  600  feet  and  the  return  speed 
for  the  haul-back  line  about  1500  feet  per  minute. 

Duplex  Aerial  System.^  —  This  is  used  both  for  yarding  and 
for  swinging.  Two  separate  engines,  mounted  tandem  and 
combined  in  one  unit  furnish  the  power.  The  forward  engine 
operates  the  skidding,  haul-back  and  straw-line  drums,  and  the 
rear  engine  operates  two  sky-line  drums  on  which  the  ends  of 
the  overhead  line  are  reeled.  The  sky-line  and  skidding  drums 
have  two  speeds  which  can  be  changed  instantly  and  the  haul- 
back  line  also  is  geared  to  a  high  speed  so  that  the  machine  can 
be  operated  faster  than  ground  systems. 

The  sky-line  consists  of  a  double  cable  on  which  the  trolley 
1  See  Figures  71  and  72. 


i>OWER  SKIDDING 


227 


228  LOGGING 

travels.  One  end  of  the  line  is  fastened  to  one  of  the  drums  and 
then  passes  up  to  and  through  a  block  on  the  spar  tree,  thence 
to  and  through  a  block  at  the  end  of  the  run,  thence  back  to  and 
through  another  block  on  the  head  spar  tree  and  then  down  to 
the  other  sky-line  drum  (Fig.  71A).  The  tail  block  is  fastened 
to  the  tail  spar  tree  as  shown  in  Fig.  71A.  When  used  as  a  yard- 
ing machine  on  uphill  or  downhill  pulls  or  on  level  ground  the 


''V 


.^ 


C^    ^'^-'--'^i'^X^-^^^   y  '^'?'.^ 


Fig.  72.  —  A  Duplex  Aerial  Yarder  logging  a  Steep  Slope  from  a  Setting 
in  the  Valley. 

haul-back  line  block  is  fastened  to  a  stump  near  the  logs  to  be 
skidded,  the  line  serving  as  a  slack-pulling  device  when  the  sky- 
line is  lowered.  When  yarding  in  deep  canyons,  the  haul-back 
block  is  placed  near  the  tail  spar  and  the  trolley  is  run  out  to 
the  desired  spot,  the  sky-line  lowered  and  the  chokers  attached 
to  the  trolley.  The  general  scheme  of  arrangement  of  cables 
for  side-hill  logging  is  shown  in  Fig.  72. 

This  system  may  be  used  for  spans  from  700  to  5000  feet. 
The  longer  distances  may  be  used  when  crossing  canyons  where 
a  suitable  cable  deflection  may  be  secured.  The  output  per  day 
may  be  as  high  as  100,000  board  feet. 


POWER  SKIDDING  229 

Other  Systems.^  —  There  are  numerous  other  systems  of  over- 
head skidding  which  have  been  developed  in  the  Northwest, 
which  differ  only  in  minor  details  from  each  other.  Some  are 
used  for  yarding  purposes  and  others  for  "swinging"  or  "roading" 
logs.  They  were  first  developed  to  solve  some  particular  logging 
problem  of  an  individual  operator  and  the  early  types  were  de- 
signed to  utilize  available  ground-yarding  power  for  their  opera- 
tion. Later  improvements  have  led  in  some  cases  to  the  use  of 
a  special  design  of  power  and  certain  other  working  parts  which 
have  made  the  systems  more  efficient. 

THE    SNAKING    SYSTEM 

This  is  a  ground  system  in  which  the  cables  are  taken  to  the 
logs  by  animals. 

It  has  a  vertical,  high-pressure  boiler  with  two,  three  or  four 
independent  skidding  drums  mounted  either  on  a  heavy  steel 
frame  and  trucks  or  on  a  steel  frame  which  is  supported  at  the 
corners  on  legs  or  "spuds."  The  first  type  is  transported  under 
its  own  power  by  a  chain  drive,  and  the  latter  type  during  transit 
rests  on  a  flat  car  which  is  drawn  by  a  locomotive. 

The  machine  has  a  heavy  pulling  boom  at  one  or  both  ends  of 
the  frame,  from  the  peak  of  which  blocks  are  suspended  through 
which  the  skidding  lines  pass.  The  pulling  booms  are  guyed  on 
either  side  to  give  them  rigidity. 

Self-propelling  snaking  machines  are  not  equipped  with  a  loading 
device  but  are  supphed  with  a  decking  cable  by  means  of  which 
logs  may  be  piled  up  along  the  track  ready  for  a  special  loading 
crew. 

When  the  snaking  machine  is  not  transported  on  its  own 
trucks,  it  is  equipped  with  a  loading  boom  and  the  logs  are  loaded 
on  cars  as  they  are  skidded.  The  machine  is  elevated  above 
the  flat  car  by  means  of  hydraulic  jacks  and  then  the  corners  are 
blocked  up.  The  log  cars  are  run  under  the  skidder  when  they 
are  brought  to  the  woods  and  are  pulled  forward  under  the 
loading  boom  by  means  of  a  "spotting"  cable  as  required  for 
loading.     The  skidding  cables  are  single  lines  which  are  carried 

'  See  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region,  by  W.  H.  Gibbons,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture,  Bui.  No.  711  for  a  description  of  some  of  these  systems.  Some 
overhead  equipment,  used  chiefly  or  solely  for  swinging,  is  described  in  Chapter 
XIV. 


230 


LOGGING 


by  a  mule  or  horse  to  the  log  to  which  they  are  attached  by  a 
pair  of  tongs  or  a  choker  and  then  drawn  in.  The  animal  is 
ridden  back  to  the  machine  and  after  the  cable  has  been  detached 


POWER  SKIDDING  231 

from  the  log,  returns  the  hne  for  another  log.  Runs  or  trails 
are  not  cut. 

The  railroads  are  laid  out  in  more  or  less  parallel  lines  from  1200 
to  1400  feet  apart  and  the  timber  is  logged  halfway  back  from 
each  side  of  the  track.  The  road  often  is  placed  on  the  higher 
ground  because  a  better  drained  track  can  be  secured  and  the 
timber  can  be  pulled  up  hill  as  readily  as  down. 

A  practice  sometimes  followed  is  to  fell  the  timber  in  two 
strips  beginning  on  the  back  edge  of  the  area  and  cutting  a  sec- 
tion from  300  to  400  feet  wide.  This  is  skidded  before  the  timber 
on  the  next  strip  is  cut.  The  ground  is  thus  kept  free  from  debris 
and  the  timber  can  be  drawn  in  easier  than  where  there  is  slash 
to  interfere.  Trees  are  seldom  felled  with  reference  to  the  loca- 
tion of  the  railroad  track  although  skidding  of  long  logs  is  simpli- 
fied if  they  are  thrown  away  from  the  direction  in  which  they  are 
to  be  pulled,  because  the  top  then  offers  the  least  interference. 
The  necessary  swamping  is  done  by  the  sawyers  at  the  time 
the  timber  is  felled. 

A  crew  of  seventeen  or  nineteen  men  and  nine  animals,  either 
horses  or  mules,  is  necessary  for  a  four-line  machine. 

1  foreman  2  levermen 

1  fireman  2-4  tong  unhookers 

4  tong  hookers  4  riders 

1  wood  chopper  1  wood  hauler 

1  night  watchman 

The  foreman  of  the  crew  has  general  supervision  of  the  opera- 
tion and  often  acts  as  the  leverman  on  the  loading  engine,  when 
the  skidder  is  equipped  with  one.  Each  leverman  operates 
two  drums  on  the  skidder.  The  fireman  performs  the  usual 
duties.  The  tong  unhookers  are  stationed  at  the  machine  and 
detach  the  tongs  or  chokers  from  the  logs  as  they  are  dragged  in, 
and  attach  the  cable  to  the  single-tree  for  hauling  back  to  the  next 
log;  they  also  may  act  as  signalmen,  transmitting  orders  from  the 
tong  hookers  at  the  stump  to  the  levermen.  The  tong  hookers 
attach  the  tongs  or  chokers  to  the  logs,  swamp  an  occasional 
limb  when  necessary,  and  control  the  speed  of  the  log  by  signals 
to  the  leverman.  The  riders,  usually  negro  boys,  ride  the  animals 
from  the  machine  to  the  next  log.  The  animals  drag  the  cable 
to  the  desired  point  and  then  are  brought  back  to  the  machine 
to  repeat  the  process.     The  wood  choppers  and  haulers  cut  and 


232  LOGGING 

supply  fuel  for  the  boiler.  The  night  watchman  guards  the 
machine  at  night,  cleans  up,  and  raises  steam  in  the  morning 
readj^  for  the  crew. 

If  the  skidder  is  equipped  with  a  loader  boom  and  engine  the 
following  extra  men  are  required : 

1  loader  leverman,  usually  the  crew  foreman 

1  top  loader 

1  ground  loader 

The  top  loader  chooses  the  logs  to  be  loaded  and,  standing 
on  the  car,  directs  their  proper  placement  on  the  load.  The 
ground  loader  places  the  loading  tongs  on  the  logs  to  be  loaded, 
acting  under  the  orders  of  the  top  loader. 

Eight  animals  are  used  for  skidding,  four  being  worked  from 
one  to  two  and  one-half  hours  and  then  allowed  to  rest  while  the 
others  are  in  use.  The  ninth  animal  is  used  to  haul  the  wood 
cart  which  transports  fuel  for  the  engine. 

The  daily  capacity  of  each  line  is  about  35,000  board  feet, 
with  a  daily  average  of  125,000  feet  for  a  4-line  machine,  where 
logs  up  to  40  feet  in  length  are  handled.  Daily  records  of  4-line 
machines,  bringing  in  whole  trees,  have  run  as  high  as  295,000  feet. 
This  amount,  however,  cannot  be  approximated  as  an  average 
even  under  favorable  circumstances. 

Snaking  machines  are  adapted  to  logging  open  stands  in  fairly 
level  or  rolling  country,  free  from  swamps,  rocks,  gullies  and  heavy 
underbrush.  The  heavy  slash  which  results  from  dense  stands 
and  unfavorable  ground  conditions  interfere  with  the  return  of 
the  lines  from  the  machine  to  the  stump  by  animals 

THE    SLACK-ROPE    SYSTEM 

This  was  developed  chiefly  in  the  cypress  swamps  of  the 
South,  where  extensive  areas  of  forest  could  not  be  logged  with 
animals,  and  where  railroad  construction  was  not  practicable. 
It  is  also  extensively  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  in  the  southern 
pineries  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  some  other  regions. 

The  system  uses  a  heavy  pulling  cable,  and  a  lighter  one  for 
returning  the  main  cable  from  the  skidder  to  the  point  from 
which  the  logs  are  to  be  dragged. 

The  power  for  the  slack-rope  system  consists  of  an  upright 
boiler,  and  two  or  more  large  drums  driven  by  one  or  more  pairs 
of  engines. 


POWER   SKIDDING  233 

Pullhoats.  —  In  the  cypress  forests,  the  slack-rope  skidder  is 
mounted  on  a  scow,  and  the  machine  complete,  consisting  of  an 
upright,  high-pressure  boiler  of  from  60  to  80  horse-power  with 
two  engines  operating  two  main  drums  and  usually  a  third  small 
drum,  is  called  a  pullboat.  The  large  drums  are  placed  tandem, 
one  having  a  capacity  of  from  3000  to  4000  feet  of  from  |-  to 
l|-inch  main  cable,  and  the  other  at  least  twice  as  much  f-inch 
messenger  cable.  An  equal  amount  of  f-inch  line  is  wound  on 
the  small  drum  and  is  used  to  pull  out  the  messenger  cable  when 
runs  are  changed.  Four  rings  are  spliced  at  50-foot  intervals 
to  the  main  cable  near  the  outer  end  and  to  these  the  chain  and 
cables  holding  the  logs  are  coupled. 

Pullboats  are  anchored  in  canals,  bayous  or  lakes  and  the 
roads  radiate  or  "fantail"  in  a  half  circle  for  a  distance  of  from 
3000  to  3500  feet,  although  some  of  the  larger  machines  can  be 
operated  for  4500  feet.  Distances  in  excess  of  3500  feet  are 
not  desirable  because  breaks  in  the  cable  are  more  or  less  fre- 
quent and  on  very  long  hauls  the  loss  of  time  in  locating  and 
repairing  them  is  excessive. 

The  canals,  dug  by  large  dredges,  are  from  40  to  50  feet  wide, 
and  about  6  feet  deep  and  often  are  several  miles  in  length. 
Although  at  first  intended  solely  for  logging  purposes,  some  canals 
in  recent  years  have  been  built  with  the  idea  of  ultimately  using 
them  for  drainage  purposes.  The  early  operators  had  difficulty 
because  they  started  to  use  the  canals  from  the  mill  end,  and  so 
much  debris  and  mud  was  drawn  into  the  water,  that  frequent 
dredging  was  necessary  to  keep  the  channel  open.  The  practice 
now  is  to  dig  the  canal  and  then  to  begin  logging  at  the  far  end, 
working  toward  the  mill.  Log  barriers  also  are  used,  which  pre- 
vent most  of  the  refuse  from  falling  into  the  canals. 

Pullboats  operated  from  the  shores  of  lakes  or  from  wide  bayous 
are  moored  to  nests  of  piling  driven  off-shore,  and  the  timber 
usually  is  pulled  in  straight  lines. 

In  laying  out  a  pullboat  job  it  is  necessary  to  locate  and  cut 
out  main  and  secondary  roads  down  which  the  logs  are  dragged 
to  the  canal  or  bayou.  The  foreman  may  locate  the  main  and 
secondary  roads  on  a  map  in  the  office  before  going  to  the  field, 
and  determine  the  points  on  the  boundary  at  which  roads  will 
terminate,  and  the  angle  at  which  they  should  run  toward  the 
pullboat.     The  far  end  of  the  cable  passes  through  a  sheave 


234 


LOGGING 


block  fastened  to  a  tail  tree.  These  are  150  feet  or  less  apart 
because  logs  cannot  readily  be  side-lined  for  distances  greater 
than  75  feet.  After  determining  on  the  map  the  approximate 
location  of  the  tail  trees  the  foreman  starts  at  some  known  point 
along  the  boundary,  paces  off  50  yards,  selects  the  nearest  suitable 
tail  tree,  and  blazes  it  so  that  it  will  not  be  cut  by  fallers.  He  thus 
proceeds   entirely   around   the   tract.     After   the   tail  trees  are 


Fig.  74.  —  The  Arrangement  of  the  Roads  down  which  Logs  are  dragged  to 
the  Pullboat.  This  system  is  known  as  fantaihng.  The  figure  is  adapted 
from  an  actual  operation  in  a  Louisiana  cypress  swamp. 


spotted,  the  route  of  the  roads  is  blazed  out  from  the  boundary 
towards  the  pullboat.  On  the  completion  of  the  work  the  roads 
will  radiate  out  from  the  skidding  center  in  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  74. 

The  advantage  of  this  system  over  the  "every  road  a  main 
road"  method  is  that  it  greatly  reduces  the  mileage  of  runs  and 
is,  therefore,  much  cheaper.  The  roads  must  be  well  cleared 
out,  otherwise  the  logs  will  catch  on  stumps  and  other  obstruc- 
tions and  cause  numerous  delays.  They  are  usually  cut  by 
contract  at  a  stated  price  per  100  feet  of  road,  with  a  further 
payment  for  each  merchantable  tree  felled  and  cut  into  logs. 
One  man  will  cut  from  60  to  500  feet  of  road  daily,  depending 
on  the  number  of  trees  to  be  cut,  number  of  stumps  to  be  removed, 
and  the  amount  of  rubbish  on  the  ground.     Workmen  regard 


POWER  SKIDDING 


235 


road  building  as  one  of  the  more  profitable  forms  of  work  in  the 
cypress  forest. 

After  the  roads  have  been  cut  and  the  timber  felled,  the  logs 
are  prepared  for  pulling  by  a  "sniping"  crew,  which  may  work 
by  the  day  or  by  contract.  The  duty  of  this  crew  is  to  "snipe" 
the  forward  ends  of  the  logs,  bore  two  opposite  2-inch  holes  about 
one  foot  from  the  forward  end  of  the  loa-,  anrl  swamp  out  a  trail 


Fig.  75.  —  A  Sheave  Block  attached  to  a  Tail  Tree  on  a  Pullboat  Operation. 
Note  the  method  of  supporting  the  block;  also  the  cross  on  the  tree  which 
denotes  its  selection  as  a  tail  tree. 


so  that  the  log  can  be  dragged  to  the  main  road.     A  four-man 
crew  will  prepare  from  75  to  100  logs  daity. 

A  pullboat  having  moved  to  a  skidding  site,  the  main  and 
messenger  cables  are  run  out.  A  sheave  block  is  adjusted  at  the 
far  end  of  the  road  and  two  f-inch  cables  are  carried  from  the 
pullboat  to  the  sheave  block;  one  end  of  the  cable  is  passed 
through  it  and  the  two  sections  are  then  joined  together.  At  the 
pullboat  one  end  of  the  |-inch  cable  is  attached  to  the  messenger 


236  LOGGING 

cable  and  the  other  end  is  reeled  in  on  the  small  drum.  This 
drags  the  messenger  cable  out  over  the  road,  through  the  sheave 
block  and  back  to  the  skidder.  The  small  cable  is  then  detached 
and  the  end  of  the  main  cable  fastened  to  the  messenger.  The 
pullboat  is  now  ready  for  operation.  When  one  road  has  been 
pulled,  it  is  customary  to  change  only  the  main  cable,  leaving 
the  messenger  in  the  first  run  logged  until  the  distance  between 
the  sheave  blocks  becomes  several  hundred  feet.  It  then  does 
not  get  in  the  way  of  logs  coming  down  the  main  road,  is  less 
subject  to  damage,  and  less  time  is  required  in  changing  runs. 
In  changing  from  one  run  to  another,  the  sheave  block  is  left  at 
the  head  of  the  first  road  and  another  is  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  next  road  to  be  pulled.  The  f-inch  cable  is  carried  from  the 
pullboat  out  over  the  new  road,  through  the  sheave  block  and 
then  across  to  the  first  run  where  the  main  cable  is  detached  from 
the  messenger  cable,  and  the  latter  connected  to  the  |-inch  line. 
The  main  cable  is  drawn  to  the  machine  and,  by  reeling  in  the 
small  cable,  the  messenger  cable  is  pulled  over  into  the  new  run 
and  along  it  to  the  pullboat.  The  messenger  and  main  cables 
are  again  coupled  together  and  the  equipment  is  ready  to  log  the 
new  run.  A  piece  of  telephone  wire  fastened  to  the  whistle  on 
the  pullboat  is  strung  along  the  outer  edge  of  the  run  and  signals 
are  given  to  the  engineer  by  pulling  on  the  wire.  The  sheave 
blocks  are  usually  placed  by  a  special  crew  before  the  change  is 
made  and  the  |-inch  cable  is  run  out  by  this  crew  unless  the 
distance  is  long,  when  the  entire  pullboat  crew  is  required.  Ten 
or  twelve  men  can  string  out  2600  feet  of  f-inch  cable  in  about 
three  hours. 

The  logs  are  prepared  for  skidding  by  the  insertion  of  plugs 
or  "puppies"  in  the  holes  previously  bored  by  the  sniping  crew. 
CyliriHncaT  plugs  2  inches  in  diameter  and  12  inches  long  are 
connected  in  pairs  by  two  sections  of  ^-inch  chain  24  inches  long 
fastened  to  a  6-inch  ring.  The  plugs  are  driven  into  the  log  and 
the  ring  on  the  plugs  is  fastened  by  a  short  chain  to  the  main 
cable.  The  log  is  now  ready  to  be  hauled  out  to  the  main  road. 
This  requires  some  maneuvering  if  there  are  stumps,  logs  or 
trees  in  the  line  of  the  log  being  hauled.  When  once  the  log  is 
dragged  into  the  main  run,  it  is  left  there  until  a  tow  of  four  logs 
is  secured.  Each  log  is  fastened  by  a  short  chain  or  cable  to 
one  of  the  rings  on  the  outer  end  of  the  main  cable.     The  boss 


POWER  SKIDDING  237 

then  gives  the  order  to  go  ahead,  which  the  whistle  boy  trans- 
mits to  the  skidder  and  the  logs  start  down  the  road. 

During  the  early  periods  of  modern  pullboating  a  device  called 
the  Baptist  cone  was_placed  over  the  ends  of  logs  to  enable  them 
to  slip  over  and  under  obstructions.  These  cones'  were  made 
of  steel  but  were  too  heavy  to  handle,  when  made  strong  enough 
to  withstand  the  rough  treatment  and  they  were  abandoned, 
in  favor  of  sniping.  Tongs  are  not  satisfactory  because  they 
lose  their  grip  as  soon  as  the  draft  on  the  cable  is  lessened.  When 
a  tow  that  is  being  dragged  down  a  main  road  is  stopped,  as  it 
frequently  must  be,  the  tongs  drop  off  and  a  man  must  be  sent 
to  readjust  them.  For  this  reason,  plugs  or  puppies  are  preferred. 
The  crew  of  a  pullboat  is  divided  into  two  sections,  one  of 
which  attaches  the  logs  to  the  main  cable  and  the  other  operates 
the  machinery  and  rafts  the  logs. 

The  woods  crew  of  seven  men  consists  chiefly  of  negroes  as 
follows : 

1  foreman  3  side-line  men 

1  plug  setter  1  whistle  boy 

1  head  hooker 

The  plug  setter  adjusts  the  plugs  or  puppies.  The  side-line 
men  carry  the  skidding  lines  from  the  main  run  to  the  logs  and 
connect  them  with  the  puppies.  The  head  hooker's  duty  is  to 
attach  the  logs  to  the  main  cable  by  short  chains.  The  whistle 
boy  transmits  the  orders  of  the  boss  to  the  engineer  by  means  of 
a  code  of  whistle  blasts. 

The  crew  at  the  pullboat  consists  of  five  men,  as  follows : 

1  engineer  1  wood-passer 

1  fireman  1  deck  man 

1  rafter 

The  engineer  and  the  fireman  perform  the  usual  duties.  The 
deck  man  uncouples  the  logs  as  they  are  brought  up  to  the  pull- 
boat, removes  the  plugs  and  chains,  and  poles  the  logs  around  to 
the  rafter  at  the  rear.  He  also  attaches  the  removed  chains  and 
plugs  to  the  main  cable  by  which  they  are  returned  to  the  woods 
crew.  The  rafter  makes  the  logs  up  into  cigar-shaped  raft  units 
about  125  feet  long.  The  wood-passer  supplies  the  pullboat 
with  fuel  wood  which  has  been  previously  cut  and  piled  along 
the  banks  of  the  bayou.  A  flat  boat  is  used  for  this  purpose. 
About  three  cords  daily  are  required  for  a  single  boiler. 


238  LOGGING 

An  average  day's  work  for  a  pullboat  crew  is  from  fifty  to 
seventy-five  logs;  the  output  is  often  less,  however,  because  of 
cable  breakage. 

Re-haul  skidder.  —  The  slack-rope  system  has  been  extensively 
introduced  into  the  southern  pine  region  in  recent  years  to  log 
timber  standing  on  a  bottom  unfavorable  for  the  use  of  animals, 
such  as  swampy  areas;  to  log  dense  stands  where  the  slash  is 
heavy;  and  also  to  log  open  stands  in  which  there  is  a  heavy 
growth  of  underbrush.  This  method  is  most  commonly  used 
in  the  shortleaf  pine  region.  One  common  type  of  re-haul  skid- 
der, the  Clyde,  is  self-propelling  and  is  mounted  on  a  special 
design  of  steel  car.  Heavy  semi-rigid  booms  project  from  each 
end  of  the  car  and  from  the  outer  ends  of  these  booms  blocks  are 
suspended  through  which  run  the  various  lines  needed  in  the 
operation  of  the  skidder.  Some  machines  are  designed  to  operate 
one  line  from  each  boom,  while  others  are  so  equipped  that  two 
lines  may  be  operated  from  each  end  of  the  skidder.  In  some 
cases,  operators  convert  a  four-line  snaking  system  into  a  two- 
line  re-haul  by  using  one-half  of  the  skidding  lines  for  out-haul 
lines.  Each  set  of  lines  requires  two  drums,  one  for  the  main 
skidding  line  and  one  for  the  out-haul,  and  if  two  lines  are  operated 
from  each  end,  a  double  set  of  drums  must  be  provided.  In 
addition  a  drum  for  a  straw  line,  one  for  a  decking  line  and  small 
drums  or  thimbles  for  tightening  the  boom  stays  are  necessary. 
The  capacity  of  the  drum  carrying  the  skidding  line  is  about  1000 
feet  of  |-inch  cable,  and  that  of  the  out-haul  drum,  about 
2500  feet  of  f-inch  cable.  The  straw  line  drum  carries  from 
2500  to  3000  feet  of  f-inch  cable  which  is  used  in  running 
out  the  out-haul  line  when  logging  is  shifted  from  one  run  to 
another.  The  decking  line  is  f-inch  and  about  150  feet  long 
and  is  used  to  deck  or  pile  the  logs  parallel  to  the  railroad.  One 
end  of  each  boom  stay  is  fastened  to  a  stump  or  tree  at  one  side 
of  the  track  and  passes  through  a  block  on  the  end  of  the  boom 
and  to  a  small  drum  on  the  machine,  which  is  used  to  tighten 
the  stay  when  it  has  been  adjusted. 

Re-haul  skidders  do  not  have  loading  equipment  and  this 
work  must  be  done  at  some  later  time  by  an  independent  load- 
ing unit.  The  usual  skidding  distance  for  machines  of  this 
type  is  from  600  to  800  feet.  Railroads,  therefore,  are  located 
approximately  one-fourth  of  a  mile  apart. 


POWER  SKIDDING  239 

Operators  using  this  method  frequently  log  only  one  or  two 
runs  from  each  line  at  a  given  set-up,  pulhng  at  approximately 
right  angles  to  the  track.  The  distance  between  set-ups  along 
the  track  is  about  200  feet  when  the  above  practice  is  followed 
and  the  machine,  therefore,  skids  from  5  to  7^  acres  before 
moving.  A  self-propelling  machine  can  be  moved  from  one  set- 
up to  another  and  the  lines  readjusted,  when  the  stand  is  fairly 
open,  in  about  twenty  minutes.  When  the  brush  is  dense  and 
the  straw  line  must  be  pulled  out  by  hand  instead  of  by  a  horse, 
it  may  require  one-half  hour.  The  crew  for  operating  a  4-line 
re-haul  skidder  consists  of  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  men,  and 
in  addition  one  horse  for  pulling  the  straw  line  out  to  the  ends 
of  the  runs  when  lines  are  being  placed  in  position. 

The  daily  capacity  of  a  re-haul  skidder  in  southern  yellow  pine 
forests  ranges  from  100  to  125  logs,  25,000  to  35,000  board  feet, 
per  line. 

Ground  yarding.  —  This  method,  in  which  the  lines  follow  the 
general  ground  level  from  the  yarding  machine  to  the  tail  blocks, 
is  in  use  chiefly  in  the  Northwest  and  in  the  Inland  Empire,  y^ 
Ground  yarders  are  used  both  for  yarding  logs  direct  from  the 
stump  to  the  railroad  and  also  as  an  intermediate  system  of 
transportation  between  the  yarding  engine  and  the  railroad  where 
it  is  not  practicable  to  place  the  railroad  within  reach  of  the 
initial  yarding  unit.  In  some  cases  the  logs  may  be  relayed 
two  or  more  times  before  they  reach  the  loading  point. 

Yarding  engines  are  mounted  on  a  steel  frame  and  have  a  ver- 
tical high-pressure  boiler  which  ranges  in  size  from  48  by  96  inches 
to  80  by  153  inches;  a  two-cylinder  engine  ranging  in  size  from 
9  by  10,  to  13  by  13  inches;  and  three  drums  driven  by  compound 
gears.  The  skidding  line  drum  has  a  capacity  of  1500  feet  of 
cable,  the  haul-back  line  drum  from  3300  to  3500  feet,  and  the 
straw  line  drum  about  3500  feet.  The  machine,  with  a  water 
tank  at  the  rear,  usually  is  mounted  on  a  sled  which  has  two 
runners  about  3  feet  in  diameter  and  from  35  to  60  feet  in  length.^ 
The  machine  is  moved  for  short  distances  under  its  own  power, 
being  dragged  over  the  ground  on  the  sled  by  means  of  cables 
which  run  from  the  machine  to  trees  or  stumps  in  the  line  of 
proposed  travel.     When  long  moves  are  made  it  is  placed  on  a 

1  Yarding  engines  often  must  be  moved  up  or  down  slopes  and  over  a  bad 
bottom.     A  sled  provides  .an  admirable  base  for  this  purpose. 


240 


LOGGING 


car  and  hauled  by  rail  to  the  new  set-up.     Some  loggers  now 
mount  their  machines  on  cars  instead  of  sleds. 

The  yarder  is  set  up  at  one  end  of  a  landing  along  a  logging 
railroad  or  at  some  intermediate  point  between  the  stump  and 
the  railroad  if  a" swing"  machine  is  to  be  used  at  the  landing. 


From  Bui.  711,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Fig.  76.  —  A  Logging  Chance  showing  the  Location  of  the  Ground  Yarding 
Roads,  Pacific  Coast  Forests. 


The  area  logged  from  one  set-up  is  determined  chiefly  by  topogra- 
phy and  stand  of  timber  per  acre.  It  is  often  irregular  in  shape, 
due  to  topography,  being  delimited  by  ridges,  gullies,  or  the 
practical  yarding  range.  The  latter  may  be  as  short  as  500 
feet  when  conditions  for  railroad  construction  are  very  favorable. 
As  a  rule,  the  average  distance  is  from  600  to  900  feet  but  in  some 
cases  logs  are  skidded  for  distances  as  great  as  1500  feet. 


POWER  SKIDDING  241 

The  yarding  engine  location  is  carefully  chosen  in  advance  of 
logging,  sometimes  before  the  railroad  is  located  because  a  good 
setting  for  a  yarder  may  be  more  important  than  the  best  railroad 
location.  When  the  yarding  engine  has  been  moved  to  the  log- 
ging site,  the  crew  runs  out  the  yarding  lines.  The  strip  first 
logged  is  often  parallel  to  the  railroad.  The  first  step  is  to  drag 
the  straw  line  by  hand  from  the  machine  out  over  the  first  run 
to  be  logged,  at  the  end  of  which  it  is  passed  through  a  tail  block. 
It  is  then  carried  along  the  back  side  of  the  setting  for  a  distance 
of  about  300  feet  where  it  is  again  passed  through  another  block 
and  then  pulled  back  to  the  machine,  thus  enclosing  a  fan-shaped 
area.  The  trip  line  is  then  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  straw 
line,  and  the  latter  pulled  in  to  the  machine  carrying  the  trip 
line  around  the  outer  edges  of  the  area  to  be  logged.  When 
the  end  of  the  trip  line  reaches  the  machine,  it  is  disconnected 
from  the  straw  line  and  attached  to  the  main  cable  and  the  machine 
is  then  ready  for  operation. 

When  the  first  run  has  been  logged,  the  main  cable  is  detached 
from  the  trip  line,  and  the  latter  pulled  through  the  blocks  until 
it  is  at  the  end  of  the  next  run  which  is  to  be  logged.  The  straw 
line  having  been  carried  out  over  the  second  run  is  passed  through 
a  new  tail  block  and  connected  to  the  end  of  the  trip  line  which 
is  then  drawn  in  to  the  machine  and  the  trip  line  detached  from 
the  straw  line  and  attached  to  the  main  cable. 

Additional  trip  line  blocks  may  be  needed  between  the  tail 
trees  or  between  one  of  the  tail  trees  and  the  machine  in  order 
to  reduce  wear  on  the  cable.  A-  diagrammatic  scheme  of  the  runs 
on  a  logging  chance  is  shown  in  Fig.  76. 

The  main  skidding  cable  usually  runs  direct  from  the  machine 
to  the  block  on  the  tail  tree,  although  there  may  be  angles  in  the 
line,  the  cable  passing  through  blocks,  or  working  against  rollers 
where  the  bends  occur. ^ 

The  first  work  of  the  yarding  crew  is  to  clear  the  area  around 
the  landing  of  debris  which  would  interfere  with  yarding  or  load- 
ing, following  which  the  yarding  of  merchantable  timber  begins. 

The  main  cable  to  the  end  of  which  a  butt  chain-  is  attached 

1  The  practice  of  pulling  in  a  straight  Une  is  now  followed  more  extensively 
than  formerly  because  of  the  delays  incident  to  placing  and  tending  the  blocks 
at  the  bends  in  the  line. 

2  A  short,  heavy  chain  fastened  to  the  main  cable,  with  a  hook  on  the  free 
end  in  which  the  choker  sockets  or  eyes  are  caught  when  logs  are  being  yarded. 


242  LOGGING 

is  run  out  by  the  trip  line  to  the  first  logs  to  be  yarded  which  are 
those  nearest  the  machine.  The  choker^  is  then  placed  around 
one  end  of  the  log  and  the  free  end  of  the  choker  caught  on  the 
butt  chain  hook.  The  log  is  then  drawn  to  the  landing  where 
it  is  loaded  on  cars.  When  a  swing  donkey  is  used,  the  log  is 
dropped  by  the  yarder  within  reach  of  the  outer  end  of  the  main 
cable  of  the  swing  donkey  and  the  log  is  then  pulled  to  the  landing  by 
the  auxiliary  machine.  One  large  log,  or  several  small  ones  may 
be  yarded  at  one  time,  the  number  depending  on  the  volume  of 
the  logs,  the  size  of  equipment  and  ground  conditions. 

Additional  blocks  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  side  line  logs 
around  stumps  or  other  obstructions. 

When  the  logs  available  from  one  end  of  the  landing  have  been 
yarded,  the  yarding  engine  is  shifted  to  the  other  end  and  the 
process  repeated.  From  two  to  four  hours  are  required  to  move 
the  yarding  engine  from  one  end  of  the  landing  to  the  other  and 
from  five  to  ten  hours  to  move  from  one  landing  to  another, 
including  the  work  necessary  to  rig  the  loading  machinery  and 
to  set  the  lines  for  yarding. 

The  crew  required  for  operating  a  system  of  ground  yarding 
varies  with  different  camps  and  with  the  difficulty  of  the  " chance" 
in  the  same  camps.  Under  average  conditions  twelve  men  are 
used. 

1  hook  tender  1  chaser 

1  swamper  1  signal  man 

1  sniper  1  engineer 

2  rigging  slingers  1  fireman 

2  choker  men  1  wood  buck 

The  hook  tender  is  the  boss  of  the  yarding  crew,  and  the  amount 
of  work  done  depends  largely  on  his  ability.  He  plans  the  work, 
shows  the  swamper  where  roads  are  to  be  cleared,  designates 
the  logs  that  are  to  be  skidded  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  to 

1  A  choker  is  a  piece  of  cable  from  If  to  If  inches  in  diameter  and 
from  15  to  30  feet  long.  One  type  has  a  socket  on  one  end  which  is  caught  in 
the  butt  hook,  and  a  flat  hook  on  the  other  end.  The  free  end  of  the  choker 
is  passed  around  one  end  of  the  log,  forming  a  noose,  and  the  flat  hook  is  then 
caught  over  the  cable.  The  <)ther  type  has  an  eye  on  each  end,  one  of  which 
is  caught  on  the  butt  hook.  The  other  end  of  the  cable  is  thrown  around 
the  log  in  the  form  of  a  noose  and  a  sliding  hook  on  the  choker  is  caught  in 
the  eye.  The  latter  type  does  not  come  loose  as  easily  as  the  flat-hook  type 
and  is  preferred  when  working  on  rough  ground.  The  flat-hook  type  is  easier 
to  handle  and  often  is  used  in  high-lead  yarding. 


POWER  SKIDDING  243 

be  taken,  and  directs  and  assists  the  rigging  slingers  in  their 
work.  The  head  rigging  sHnger  is  the  hook  tender's  assistant 
and  working  alone  or  assisted  by  one  or  two  helpers,  he  unhooks 
the  chokers  from  the  butt  chain  when  the  main  cable  has  been 
returned  to  the  log,  hooks  up  new  turns  of  logs,  and  sets  "lead" 
and  other  blocks  when  they  are  required.  The  swamper  works 
just  ahead  of  the  rigging  crew,  knots  the  logs,  chops  out  the 
small  trees  and  brush,  cuts  roots  and  improves  the  runs  so  that 
logs  can  be  brought  in  without  being  hung  up.  The  chief  duty 
of  the  choker  men  is  to  place  the  chokers  in  position  on  the  log. 
The  sniper  rounds  the  forvvard  ends  of  the  logs  so  that  they  will 
more  easily  slide  over  obstructions.  The  chaser  passes  logs  by 
the  butt-chain  blocks  and  unhooks  the  logs  at  the  landing.^ 
The  signal  man  transmits  the  orders  of  the  hook  tender,  rigging 
slinger,  or  chaser  to  the  engineer  either  by  pulling  on  a  wire  at- 
tached to  the  whistle  of  a  yarder  or  by  means  of  an  electric  whistle 
control  operated  by  batteries. 

The  daily  output  of  ground  yarding  equipment  is  extremely 
variable  but  ranges  between  40,000  and  80,000  board  feet.  In 
some  cases  a  higher  output  has  been  secured  for  short  periods 
and  in  other  cases  it  has  fallen  below  the  minimum  men- 
tioned. 

High-lead  yarding^  —  In  this  system  the  main  cable  passes 
from  the  machine  through  a  block  suspended  125  or  more  feet 
in  the  air  from  a  nearby  spar  tree  and  from  thence  to  a  block  at 
the  far  end  of  the  run.  The  haul-back  line  follows  the  general 
ground  level.  Although  this  method  was  known  in  the  West  as 
early  as  1905,  it  was  not  extensively  used  until  about  1915  since 
which  time  many  installations  have  been  made.^  This  method 
is  not  commonly  employed  in  other  regions  due  to  the  absence 
of  trees  of  a  suitable  size  and  height  for  spars.     The  system  has 

1  When  the  butt  chain  blocks  are  some  distance  from  the  landing  an  extra 
man  maj^  be  needed  to  tend  them.  Their  use  is  becoming  less  frequent  for 
this  reason. 

2  See  Fig.  77. 

5  The  high-lead  method  was  used  in  the  South  some  years  previous  to  1905. 
A  patent  on  a  high-lead  system  for  western  use  was  granted  to  H.  R.  Robinson 
in  1905  and  in  a  later  suit  brought  to  collect  roj-alty  from  loggers  who  used 
that  method  it  was  brought  out  that  similar  patents  had  been  issued  several 
years  previously  and  that  machines  built  under  the  earlier  patents  were  in 
operation  before  the  Robinson  patent  was  granted. 


244 


LOGGING 


been  used  in  exceptional  cases  for  distances  as  great  as  2000  feet, 
but  this  is  not  considered  profitable  as  a  general  practice. 

The  chief  advantages  of  the  high-lead  over  the  ground  system 
are  (a)  the  front  ends  of  the  logs  are  elevated  and,  therefore, 
do  not  hang  up  on  stumps,  rocks  and  other  obstructions,  or  dig 


36   High  Lead  Block 


9  xlOK  Duplux  Loading  Engi 
with  third  drum  for  snubbing  cars /-^ 


From  Rul.  711,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Fig.  77.  —  Arrangement  of  High-lead   Skidding  and  Loading  Equipment. 
Pacific  Coast. 


into  the  ground  so  much  when  crossing  depressions;  (b)  a  special 
landing  is  not  required,  although  the  saving  in  cost  due  to  this  is 
largely  offset  by  the  cost  of  rigging  the  spar  tree;  (c)  two  moves 
only  are  necessary  to  log  an  area  at  one  landing  as  compared  to 
four  for  a  ground  system;  (d)  the  loading  area  can  be  kept  rela- 
tively free  from  debris  and  yarding,  therefore,  may  be  more 
continuous;  (e)  and  a  higher  skidding  speed^  may  be  used  as  soon 
1  Two-speed  engines  are  used,  the  lower  speed  being  employed  to  haul  the 
logs  up  to  a  point  where  the  forward  end  of  a  log  can  be  elevated,  and  the 
higher  speed  to  bring  the  log  from  this  point  to  the  landing.  The  change 
from  one  speed  to  another  may  be  made  instantaneously. 


POWER  SKIDDING  245 

as  the  log  reaches  a  point  near  enough  to  the  spar  to  have  the  cable 
exert  a  lifting  tendency.  This  distance  depends  upon  the  height 
of  the  spar  tree  and  the  configuration  of  the  ground  but  seldom 
exceeds  600  feet. 

A  main  spar  tree  from  15  to  20  feet  from  the  center  of  the  rail- 
road track  is  selected  at  the  proposed  setting  and  the  top  is  cut 
off  at  a  point  from  150  to  200  feet  above  ground.  The  spar  is 
then  guyed  with  from  six  to  nine  lines. ^  In  case  a  suitable  tree 
is  not  available  at  the  setting  a  spar  may  be  moved  to  the  site, 
although  this  method  is  resorted  to  only  under  exceptional  cir- 
cumstances. 

The  yarding  engine  is  placed  from  150  to  250  feet  from  the  spar 
tree  in  order  to  relieve  the  strain  on  the  spar.  The  main  cable 
is  supported  on  a  high-lead  block  of  special  design,  which  is  sus- 
pended under  the  guy  lines  at  an  elevation  of  from  125  to  175  feet. 

A  standard  type  of  ground  yarding  engine  may  be  used  for 
high-lead  yarding,  but  a  special  three-drum  type  with  higher 
drum  speeds  is  necessary  if  the  operator  secures  the  full  advantage 
of  the  system.  Some  operators  now  mount  their  yarders  on  steel 
cars  instead  of  on  sleds,  and  place  them  on  a  siding  near  the  spar 
tree,  lashing  the  car  to  the  latter. 

The  cables  and  chokers  are  similar  to  those  used  for  ground 
yarding  but  cables  of  a  smaller  size  are  often  used  because  there 
is  less  wear  on  them. 

The  crew  required  to  operate  this  system  may  consist  of  eleven 
men,  provided  the  spar  rigging  is  done  by  a  special  crew,  which 
may  rig  for  two  skidding  units. 

1  hook  tender  1  engineer 

1  rigging  slinger  1  fireman 

3  choker  men  1  wood  buck 

1  signal  man  1  wood  splitter 

1  chaser 

The  output  per  crew  may  exceed  that  for  a  ground  system  operat- 
ing under  like  conditions  by  from  15  to  30  per  cent. 

SWINGING   AND    ROADING 

Overhead,  ground  yarding  and  high-lead  equipment  are  fre- 
quently used  in  the  Northwest  to  bring  logs  from  a  yarding  ma- 
chine to  the  railroad  spur  or  to  some  driveable  stream  or  other  body 

1  When  nine  guy  hnes  are  used,  six  radiate  from  a  point  near  the  top  of  the 
spar,  and  three  from  some  point  lower  down. 


246  LOGGING 

of  water  on  which  the  logs  can  be  floated  to  destination.  This 
process  is  called  "swinging"  when  the  distance  for  which  the 
timber  is  moved  is  relatively  short  and  ground  improvements 
are  not  made.  "Roading"  is  a  term  frequently  applied  to  the 
movement  of  timber  for  comparatively  long  distances,  and  of- 
ten presupposes  some  form  of  ground  improvements  such  as  the 
installation  of  fore-and-aft  roads.  The  two  terms  often  are  used 
indiscriminately,  however,  and  the  term  roading  may  be  applied 
to  short  distance  hauling  without  ground  improvements. 

There  is  no  standard  practice  with  reference  to  swinging  and 
roading  because  operators  are  not  fully  agreed  as  to  the  merits 
of  this  system  especially  for  logging  on  a  relatively  flat  chance. 
The  tendency  some  years  ago,  when  railroad  spurs  began  to 
displace  skid  roads,  was  to  put  the  railroad  within  yarding  dis- 
tance of  every  log.  This  practice  was  feasible  as  long  as  ground 
conditions  were  favorable  for  comparatively  cheap  railroad  grade 
construction.  Many  logging  operations  are  now  located  in  a 
region  of  rough  topography  where  the  cost  of  railroad  construc- 
tion is  high  and  modern  swinging  and  roading  methods  have  been 
developed  to  reduce  the  mileage  of  high-cost  railroad  that  would 
be  necessary  to  bring  every  tree  within  a  single  yarding  distance. 

Ground  and  high-lead  swinging  are  used  preferably  on  the  gentle 
slopes  while  some  form  of  overhead  system  has  proved  the  best 
in  mountainous  regions,  especially  for  bringing  logs  up  or  down 
steep  slopes,  and  across  gorges. 

The  ground  and  high-lead  systems  of  swinging  often  are  operated 
by  the  standard  type  of  yarding  engine  which  may  be  used  either 
for  yarding  or  swinging.  In  general  a  simple-geared  engine  is 
preferred  when  the  ground  system  is  used.  The  crew  consists 
of  five  or  more  men,  depending  on  topography  and  output. 
The  minimum  crew  comprises  an  engineer,  fireman,  wood  buck, 
hooker-on,  and  a  chaser. 

The  distance  for  which  swinging  is  carried  on  with  ground  or 
high-lead  equipment  varies  with  the  topography  and  the  aim  is 
to  so  locate  the  swing  donkeys  that  the  yarding  operations  will 
not  be  held  up.  Sometimes  the  distance  for  a  single  haul  is 
1200  feet,  but  in  general,  it  is  but  little  greater  than  the  yarding 
distance. 

When  some  form  of  overhead  system  is  used  to  swing  logs,  the 
distances  may  be  1200  feet  or  more  since  it  is  practicable  to  haul 


POWER  SKIDDING  247 

for  longer  distances  than  when  the  logs  are  dragged  along  the 
ground.  The  Lidgerwood,  MacFarlane,  North  Bend  and  other 
overhead  skidders  are  used  in  addition  to  other  types  which 
have  been  developed  especially  for  this  purpose.  The  use  of  a 
double-sky  line  system  for  swinging  logs  in  the  redwood  region 
is  shown  in  Fig.  78.^     The  logging  railroad  is  located  in  a  gulch 


Adapted  from  The  Timberman. 
Fig.  78.  —  A  Duplex  Aerial  Cableway  System  used  to  swing  Logs  from  Two 
Yarding  Engines  located  on  opposite  Sides  of  a  Canyon. 

and  higher  up  on  both  sides  of  the  slopes  yarding  donkeys  are  placed 
which  bring  the  logs  under  the  overhead  cable.  A  log  is  picked 
up  on  one  side  of  the  gulch  and  dropped  within  reach  of  the  load- 
ing rig  along  the  railroad,  and  the  trolley  is  then  run  to  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  gulch  and  a  log  brought  from  there  to  the  rail- 
road. The  machine  thus  alternately  serves  two  yarding  engines. 
The  installation  of  this  machine  obviated  the  necessity  of  building 
expensive  railroad  grades  up  the  slopes  to  the  yarding  engines, 
and  enabled  the  operator  to  get  his  logs  to  the  railroad  with  a 
minimum  of  damage  from  breakage.  Special  equipment  has 
been  devised  to  handle  logs  on  very  steep  grades  or  to  lower  timber 
from  a  higher  to  some  lower  level.  Some  types  of  such  equipment 
are  discussed  under  aerial  trams.- 

Roading  was  formerly  used  extensively  in  connection  with  the 
ground  system  of  yarding  to  move  the  logs  from  the  yarding 
engine  to  the  railroad  or  to  some  stream  or  body  of  water  on  which 

1  See  The  Timberman,  August,  1922,  p.  144. 

2  See  Chapter  XV. 


248  LOGGING 

the  logs  could  be  floated.  Some  of  the  earlier  road  engines  were 
capable  of  operating  for  distances  of  1  mile,  and  sometimes  the 
logs  were  relayed  by  two  or  more  machines.  One  road  engine 
now  seldom  hauls  for  more  than  3000  feet  and  at  this  distance 
it  will  handle  the  output  of  two  ground  yarding  engines.  For 
long-distance  hauling,  skid  roads  or  pole  roads  were  installed. 
The  system  is  less  frequently  used  today  than  formerly  because 
a  skid  road  or  a  pole  road  often  costs  nearly  as  much  as  the  grade 
of  a  spur  logging  railroad  and  the  cost  of  moving  logs  by  road 
engine  is  more  costly  than  by  railroad.  Today  many  loggers 
have  replaced  the  road  engine,  either  with  an  overhead  system 
of  transportation  or  with  a  short-distance  ground  system  which 
does  not  require  a  skid  or  pole  road,  or  else  the  logging  spur  is 
built  to  the  setting  of  the  ground  yarder.  Roading  is  most  ex- 
tensivel}^  practiced  in  certain  sections  of  the  Northwest  in  which 
a  large  part  of  the  log  input  is  rafted  to  market  and  in  which  a 
pole-road  haul  of  from  1  to  2  miles  will  reach  a  driveable  stream.  A 
road  engine  is  similar  to  a  simple-geared  yarding  engine,  but  the 
drum  capacity  is  much  greater.  It  is  mounted  on  a  sled  in  the 
same  manner  as  a  ground  yarding  machine  and  is  moved  about 
from  one  setting  to  another  under  its  own  power. 

The  main  cable  is  1  or  1|  inches  in  diameter  with  a  f- 
or  f-inch  haul-back  line.  The  cable  is  operated  on  the  slack-rope 
system  with  the  road  engine  located  at  the  landing  and  a  heavy 
tail-sheave  at  a  point  a  short  distance  behind  the  yarding  engine. 
The  haul-back  line  which  is  placed  near  the  main  road,  but 
outside  of  it  so  that  it  will  not  interfere  with  the  operation  of  the 
main  cable,  is  hung  in  snatch  blocks  located  at  suitable  points. 
The  main  cable  follows  the  road  and  is  kept  in  place  by  blocks 
or  by  rollers  where  turns  are  made.  Several  logs  aggregating 
from  6000  to  11,000  board  feet  are  fastened  one  behind  the  other 
by  grabs,  and  form  turns  which  are  attached  to  the  main  cable  by 
a  chain  or  short  piece  of  cable  which  is  coupled  to  the  grabs  on  the 
forward  log.  The  turns  are  made  up  by  a  grab  setter.  A 
chaser  follows  the  logs  to  the  landing,  often  riding  in  a  rigging 
sled  hollowed  out  of  a  log,  which  is  attached  to  the  rear  log.  The 
chaser  can  signal  to  the  road  engineer  at  any  point  along  the  line 
by  pulling  on  a  wire  stretched  along  the  road  which  is  connected 
to  the  whistle  on  the  engine.  On  arrival  at  the  landing  the  chaser 
aids  in  placing  the  logs  on  the  landing,  removes  the  grabs  from  the 


POWER   SKIDDING  249 

logs  and  returns  with  the  grabs  in  the  rigging  sled  to  the  yarding 
machine. 

A  dirt  road  often  is  used  for  distances  under  2000  feet,  but  when 
the  length  of  haul  exceeds  this  a  fore-and-aft  or  a  pole  road  is 
constructed. 1  Skid  roads-  were  used  extensively  at  one  time,  but 
they  have  been  abandoned  by  most  operators,  although  some 
still  build  skid  roads  when  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  their 
use.  They  are  more  expensive  than  pole  roads  since  a  well 
constructed  grade  is  necessary  and  from  80,000  to  100,000  board 
feet  of  construction  timber  is  required  per  mile,  exclusive  of  bridges. 

The  road  should  be  as  straight  as  possible  because  curves 
increase  the  frictional  resistance  and  reduce  the  hauling  ability 
of  the  engine  and  increase  the  wear  on  the  cable.  Rollers  are 
placed  on  stumps  or  posts,  or  fenders  are  put  alongside  the  road 
at  curves  to  reduce  the  wear  on  the  main  cable. 

During  the  early  period  of  logging  in  the  Northwest  the  road 
engine  sometimes  was  replaced  by  a  geared  locomotive  and  the 
logs  were  dragged  between  the  rails  from  the  yarding  engine  to 
the  landing.  As  a  rule,  the  logs  were  dragged  over  the  cross- 
ties,  but  on  a  road  of  some  permanency  planks  were  spiked  on 
the  ties  to  protect  them.  A  plan  sometimes  followed  was  to 
have  a  spur  track  from  |  to  1  mile  long  running  out  from  each 
end  of  the  landing,  with  a  donke}^  working  at  some  point  on  each 
spur.  The  engine  went  out  one  spur  and  with  a  short  cable  it 
coupled  to  a  turn  of  logs,  made  up  in  advance,  and  dragged  them 
to  the  landing.  It  then  went  out  the  other  spur  and  brought 
in  a  turn  from  it,  alternating  in  this  manner  throughout  the  day. 
A  water  tank  with  a  1^-inch  escape  pipe  was  used  to  wet  the 
track  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  logs.  On  a  1-mile  haul 
one  engine  handled  daily  the  output  from  two  yarding 
engines. 

FUEL    REQUIREMENTS 

Wood  is  the  fuel  most  commonly  used  in  power  skidders  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  although  coal  and  fuel  oil  are  used  in 
regions  where  they  are  readil}^  available. 

From  the  steam-producing  standpoint  wood  is  a  fairly  satis- 
factory fuel  for  average  logging  conditions  since  it  can  be  secured 
on  the  operation  and  is  seemingly  cheap.  When  heavy  demands 
1  See  page  268.     =  See  page  148. 


250  LOGGING 

are  made  on  the  boilers  for  power,  wood  is  not  as  satisfactory 
as  fuel  oil  or  coal  and,  in  some  parts  of  the  West,  wood  has  been 
replaced  by  fuel  oil  and  in  other  regions  where  coal  can  be  easily 
obtained  it  has  been  substituted  frequently  for  wood.  The  use 
both  of  wood  and  of  coal  represents  a  high  fire  hazard  because 
of  the  heavy  spark  discharge  and  this  has  led  to  a  preference  for 
fuel  oil  when  it  can  be  secured  at  a  reasonable  price. 

Wood  fuel  often  is  cut  from  merchantable  logs  which  have  been 
skidded  to  the  machine.  Cull  logs  are  sometimes  used,  but  they 
provide  an  inferior  fuel  and  their  use  is  limited  on  that  account. 
In  the  southern  pine  region,  "fat"  pine  is  a  common  fuel  because 
of  its  high  heat  value.  It  is,  however,  harder  on  boiler  flues 
than  most  other  kinds  of  wood  because  of  the  marked  changes 
in  the  temperature  of  the  fire  box.  When  "fat"  wood  is  first 
thrown  on  the  fire,  the  early  combustion  of  the  volatile  gases 
creates  an  intense  heat.  Before  the  wood  has  been  consumed 
to  the  point  where  more  can  be  put  on  the  fire,  the  temperature 
in  the  fire  box  will  have  dropped  to  a  marked  extent.  The  con- 
stant rise  and  fall  of  temperature  causes  a  continual  contraction 
and  expansion  of  boiler  tubes  which  often  leads  to  tube  leakage. 

The  amount  of  wood  fuel  consumed  by  a  skidder  is  dependent 
on  the  length  of  haul,  the  size  of  the  logs  and  the  character  of 
fuel  wood.  In  general  an  overhead,  a  re-haul,  and  a  snaking 
skidder  in  the  South  each  burn  from  four  to  five  cords  of  2-foot 
wood  daily.  A  11-  by  13-inch  yarding  engine  in  the  Northwest 
will  use  daily  from  1000  to  1600  feet  log  scale  of  timber  which  is 
equivalent  to  from  four  to  six  2-foot  cords. 

Coal  is  considered  a  better  fuel  than  wood,  but  is  fully  as 
hazardous  from  the  forest  fire  point  of  view  and  in  many  places 
is  as  expensive  as  fuel  oil,  hence  the  latter  is  preferred.  The  coal 
requirements  for  a  skidder  range  from  1  to  1|  tons  daily. 

Oil  is  considered  the  most  satisfactory  fuel  for  yarding  engines 
and  skidders  which  are  located  on  a  railroad  because  of  the 
low  forest  fire  hazard  connected  with  its  use,  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  be  placed  in  the  storage  tanks,  and  the  ability  of  the  fire- 
man to  maintain  an  adequate  steam  pressure  when  heavy  de- 
mands are  made  for  power.  It  is  claimed  that  oil  burners  may 
have  from  15  to  25  per  cent  greater  efficiency  than  wood  burn- 
ers because  of  the  ability  to  always  hold  a  high  head  of  steam. 
A  yarding  engine  will  consume  from  five  to  eight  barrels  of  fuel  oil 


POWER  SKIDDING 


251 


daily,  the  average  being  about  five  gallons  of  oil  per  thousand 
board  feet  of  timber  yarded. 


SPARK   ARRESTERS 

The  laws  of  most  forested  states  require  the  use  of  some  form 
of  spark  arrester  on  wood-  and  coal-burning  skidding  machinery. 
There  are  several  types  of  spark  arresters  for  stationary  engines, 
C, 


1 W          ^ 

wnffi 

k 

J. 

1 

Q 

I    \ 

Fig.  79. —  The  South  Bend  Spark 
Arrester  adapted  to  Power  Skid- 
ding MachinerJ^ 


The   Boomerang  Spark 
Arrester. 


two  of  which  are  here  described.  A  spark  arrester  will  not  com- 
pletely prevent  the  emission  of  live  sparks  from  skidder  power 
plants  which  are  operated  under  forced  draft,  but  the  fire  hazard 
can  be  decreased  by  properly  screening  the  stack. 

The  South  Bend  Spark  Arrester^  is  used  almost  exclusively 
on  power  skidders  in  the  southern  yellow  pine  region,  and  also 
to  some  extent  in  the  Northwest. 

It  has  a  round  tapering  shell  (A)  of  sheet  metal,  an  outlet  (B) 
at  the  side  for  the  discharge  of  sparks  and  cinders;  and  a  sheet 
metal  cover  (C).  A  cone-shaped  screen  (D)  attached  to  the 
sheet  iron  cover  hangs  within  the  stack,  apex  downward,  and 
deflects  the  cinders  into  the  spark  receiver  at  the  head  of  the  out- 
1  See  Fig.  79. 


252  LOGGING 

let  pipes.  The  steam,  smoke  and  gases  escape  through  the  screen, 
in  which  the  cinders  do  not  clog  because  of  its  conical  form. 
The  screen  can  be  raised  by  means  of  the  lever  lift  (E)  when  it 
is  unnecessary  to  use  an  arrester  or  when  firing  up  the  boiler. 
The  Boomerang  Spark  Arrester  is  used  by  many  loggers  on  the 
Pacific  Coast.  This  has  a  heavy  |-inch  mesh  round  screen 
(A),  slightly  flaring  toward  the  top,  on  which  is  mounted  a  heavy 
sheet  iron  cone  (B).  The  latter  ends  in  a  boomerang  (C)  to  the 
open  end  of  which  a  screen  conveyor  tube  (D)  is  attached.  The 
smoke  passes  out  through  the  screen  while  the  sparks  travel 
straight  up  through  the  steel  cone  where  they  are  diverted  into 
the  boomerang  and  led  into  a  receptacle  by  the  side  of  the  engine. 
As  the  sparks  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  screen  it  does  not 
become  clogged. 

ELECTRICAL   DRIVE 

Loggers  and  the  manufacturers  of  electrical  equipment  have 
been  interested  for  many  years  in  the  development  of  logging  ma- 
chinery driven  by  electrical  power,  but  only  a  relatively  few 
installations  of  such  equipment  have  been  made.  As  early  as 
1908  an  electric  road  engine  was  tried  out  in  British  Columbia, 
but  it  did  not  work  satisfactorily  because  of  the  inability  of  the 
motor  to  vary  its  speed,  and  take  up  the  slack  in  the  line  on  down- 
grade pulls.  One  of  the  earliest  installations  of  yarding  engines 
with  electric  drive  was  made  in  1911  and  since  that  time  marked 
improvements  have  been  made  in  such  equipment,  especially 
since  1918.  Although  the  loggers,  in  general,  have  not  accepted 
the  electric-drive  idea  in  its  present  stage  of  development,  some 
have  made  installations  which  are  giving  satisfaction.  The  modern 
electrically-driven  donkey  engine  is  a  combination  yarding  engine 
and  loader  mounted  on  one  sled  about  60  feet  long.  The  two-speed 
motor  driving  the  yarding  drums  has  a  rated  horse-power  of  300 
which,  by  gearing,  may  be  increased  to  1200.  The  loading  drums 
are  driven  by  a  75  horse-power,  two-speed  motor.  The  skidding 
drum  has  a  capacity  of  1800  feet  of  1^-inch  cable.  The  gear 
shifts,  frictions  and  whistle  are  operated  by  compressed  air. 
Power  for  driving  the  motors  is  brought  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
yarding  engine  by  transmission  lines  which  carry  about  13,000 
volts,  which  is  stepped  down  by  a  transformer  located  near  the 
machine,  to  600  volts. 


POWER   SKIDDING  253 

The  combined  yarder  and  loader  weighing  from  70  to  80  tons 
is  moved  about  from  one  point  to  another  on  a  specially  designed 
steel  car.  Modern  electric  yarding  engines  have  proved  to  have  a 
logging  capacity  equal  to  those  using  steam  power. 

One  of  the  chief  advantages  which  will  result  from  the  more 
extensive  adoption  of  electric  logging  machinery  is  the  great 
reduction  in  the  forest  fire  hazard.  Further,  fuel  and  water  are 
not  required  and  the  services  of  a  fireman  can  be  dispensed  with. 
Power  lines  can  be  installed  at  approximately  the  cost  necessary 
to  pipe  water  to  a  steam  yarding  engine. 

Those  who  have  experunented  with  electrical  power,  state 
that  its  use  should  not  be  attempted  unless  adequate  power  is 
available  at  a  reasonable  price. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO   CHAPTER   XIV 

Berry,  E.  J.:    Advantages  Accruing  to  the  Adoption  of  Electricity  in 

Logging.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  32  and  33. 
Clark,  E.  T.:    Pacific  Coast  Logging.     West  Coast  Lumberman,  Maj^  1, 

1920,  pp.  51  to  118. 

Cole,  C.  O.  :   Difficulties  Confronting  Electric  Log  Haulage.     The  Timber- 
man,  August,  1912,  pp.  36  and  37. 
Dickinson,  M.  H.:  Single  Main  Cable  Logging.     The  Timberman,  Nov., 

1921,  pp.  96  C  and  96  D. 

Frink,  Francis  G.:  Washington  High-Lead.  The  Timberman.  Sept., 
1915,  p.  46. 

Gibbons,  William  H.:  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region.  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture,  Bui.  No.  711,  Washington,  1918. 

Gray,  R.  E.:  Progress  in  Electric  Logging.  The  Timberman,  Nov.,  1921, 
pp.  62-64. 

HiNE,  Thomas  W. :  Utility  of  the  Duplex  Logging  Engine  and  the  Duplex 
System  of  Yarding.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  36  and  37. 

K ALB,  Henry  A.:  Utilization  of  Compressed  Air  for  Snubbing  Logs.  The 
Timberman,  August,  1912,  p.  53. 

McGiffert,  J.  R.:  Development  of  Cableway  Skidder.  American  Lum- 
berman, Oct.  22,  1921,  pp.  56  and  57. 

Mereen,  J.  D.:  Substitution  of  Electricity  for  Steam  in  Modern  Logging 
Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  29  and  30. 

Murray,  L.  T.:  Railroad  Construction  vs.  Donkey  Hauls.  The  Timber- 
man, Nov.,  1921,  pp.  60  and  61. 

Murray,  L.  T.  :  Changes  in  Types  of  Donkey  Engines.  The  Timberman, 
Nov.,  1922,  pp.  50,  52,  and  55. 

O'Hearne,  James:  Wire  Rope.  The  Timberman,  Nov.,  1922,  pp.  40  and 
41. 

Taylor,  W.  S.:  Different  Stages  in  the  Evolution  of  Overhead  System  of 
Logging.     The  Timberman,  Jan.  1914,  pp.  30  and  31. 


254  LOGGING 

Thompson,   Jas.   R.:    Use   of   Electricity   on   Logging  Operations.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1910,  p.  64L. 
ViNNEDGE,  R.  W.:   A  Composite  Flying  Machine.     The  Timberman,  Oct. 

1913,  pp.  33  to  36  incl. 
ViNNEDGE,  R.  W.:    Overhead  Logging  Systems.      The  Timberman,  Nov. 

1922,  pp.  45-50. 
Williams,  Asa  S. :   Logging  by  Steam.     Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  No. 

1,  pp.  1-33. 


CHAPTER  XV 
AERIAL  TRAMWAYS 

Aerial  tramways  are  used  for  carrying  logs  and  other  forest 
products  up  or  down  steep  slopes,  where  other  forms  of  trans- 
port are  not  feasible. 

A  common  type  has  a  stationary  main  cable  stretched  between 
the  terminals  of  the  tramway.  It  may  be  a  single  span  or 
it  may  be  supported  at  frequent  intervals  on  trestles  or  masts. 
The  trolleys  carrying  the  loads  run  on  this  cable,  and  are 
drawn  along  it  by  a  smaller  endless  power-driven  traction  line. 

Tramways  are  seldom  justified,  except  where  other  means  of 
transport  are  not  practicable.  Their  chief  use  has  been  for 
moving  products  in  mountainous  regions,  especially  where  deep 
gorges  must  be  spanned  or  ridges  crossed.  They  may  be  built 
to  operate  on  steep  grades,  and  are  relatively  cheap  to  construct 
and  operate  in  a  very  rough  country  as  compared  to  a  railroad. 
The  amount  of  power  required  is  comparatively  small. 

They  have  been  installed  in  the  United  States  only  to  a  very 
limited  extent  although  frequently  used  in  Europe  and  India 
especially  for  the  transport  of  firewood.  Their  use  in  this  country 
will  increase  as  logging  operations  reach  the  more  inaccessible 
stands  of  timber  at  the  higher  elevations.  Aerial  trams  have 
advantages  which  flumes  and  slides  do  not  possess,  because  the 
two  latter  require  descending  grades  for  operation  and  they  are  a 
one-way  system  only,  while  the  aerial  tram,  on  the  other  hand, 
operates  successfully  both  on  ascending  and  descending  grades, 
and  provides  a  means  of  transportation  in  both  directions. 

Gravity  tramways  of  several  types  have  been  used  in  this 
country  to  bring  logs  from  benches  to  some  form  of  transportation 
on  the  lower  levels.  One  such  installation  in  Tennessee  was 
designed  to  bring  logs  from  a  plateau  to  the  logging  railroad  about 
3700  feet  distant.  The  f-inch  standing  line  followed  the  general 
slope  of  the  ground  and  was  supported  at  intervals  of  from  150 
to  250  feet  on  brackets  of  varying  length  which  were  fastened  to 
255 


256  LOGGING 

trees.  The  cable  rested,  free,  in  a  slot  in  a  casting  bolted  to 
the  end  of  the  brackets,  except  in  depressions  where  one  end  of 
a  piece  of  strap  iron  was  riveted  to  the  outer  side  of  the  casting 
and  the  other  end  passed  over  the  cable  and  was  nailed  to  the 
bracket. 

A  log  was  carried  by  a  pair  of  trolleys,  each  having  two  sheave 
pulleys  which  ran  on  the  upper  side  of  the  cable.  Two  short 
chains  each  having  a  ring  on  one  end  and  a  "grab"  on  the  other 
were  used  for  attaching  the  logs  to  the  trolleys. 

Five  sets  of  trolleys  were  joined  together  by  a  |-inch  cable, 
which  was  wound  around  a  drum,  equipped  with  a  friction  brake, 
which  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  tramway  and  served  both 
to  control  the  speed  of  the  descending  load  and  to  return  the 
empty  trolleys  to  the  head  of  the  tramway.  Power  for  the 
latter  purpose  was  supplied  by  a  6-horse-power  gasoline  engine. 

The  logs  were  loaded  on  the  tramway  from  a  set  of  balanced 
skids  which  were  placed  so  that  the  short  ends  of  the  skids  were 
directly  under  the  main  cable.  Horses  brought  the  logs  to  the 
base  of  the  balanced  skids  upon  which  they  were  rolled.  The 
grabs  were  then  driven  and  the  skids  elevated  until  the  rings 
oto  the  grabs  could  be  fastened  in  the  hook  on  the  trolleys. 

The  maximum  capacity  of  the  tramway  was  6000  board  feet 
per  turn,  and  approximately  thirty  minutes  were  consumed  in 
making  one  round-trip. 

A  similar  tramway  has  been  used  in  the  Northwest  for  elevating 
logs  from  canyons  to  plateaus.  The  cable  was  suspended  between 
two  points  and  the  loaded  trolleys  were  hauled  to  the  top  by  a 
hoisting  engine. 

A  special  adaptation  of  a  single-wire  tramway^  has  been  used 
on  an  operation  in  the  Northwest  for  lowering  logs  on  grades 
up  to  60  degrees.  The  main  cable  was  1|  inches  in  diameter 
and  1500  feet  long.  It  was  attached  at  the  head  of  the  tramway 
to  a  large  tree  at  a  height  of  75  feet.  The  tree  was  braced  se- 
curely on  three  sides  with  guy  wires.  A  16-inch  sheave  block 
was  spliced  to  the  lower  end  of  the  main  cable  and  through  this 
block  a  1-inch  cable  150  feet  long  was  passed.  One  end  of  the 
latter  was  attached  to  a  stump  and  the  other  to  the  drum  of  a 
yarding  engine,  both  stump  and  yarding  engine  being  in  front  of 
and  equidistant  from  the  sheave  block.  The  main  cable  could 
1  See  The  Timberman,  Aug.  1909,  p.  24. 


AERIAL  TRAMWAYS 


257 


be  lifted  several  feet  above  ground  by  tightening  the  secondary- 
cable  with  a  few  turns  on  the  drum.  The  logs  were  attached  by- 
chokers  to  a  traveling  block  that  ran  on  the  main  cable.  The 
load  descended  by  gravity,  its  speed  being  controlled  by  a  |-inch 
cable  which  was  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  traveling  block, 
and  then  passed  through  a  block  fastened  to  the  tail  tree  and  thence 
down  the  slope  to  a  drum  on  the  engine.     The  trip  line  was  held 


Fig.  81.  —  A  Single- wire  Tramway  used  in  the  Northwest.  The  details  of 
the  trolley  and  the  method  of  attaching  logs  to  it  are  shown  in  the  en- 
larged cut. 

in  position  by  several  blocks  placed  at  suitable  intervals  on  the 
slope.  This  line  also  served  to  return  the  block  to  the  head  of 
the  tramway.  In  case  of  a  break  in  the  machinery  or  of  the  load 
becoming  unmanageable  the  main  cable  could  be  dropped  to 
the  ground  and  the  load  stopped. 

A  system  of  this  character  may  be  used  for  distances  of  3000 
feet  when  there  are  no  pronounced  elevations  between  the  two 
ends  of  the  tram. 

Logs  containing  from  5000  to  6000  board  feet  have  been  success- 
fully handled.  The  hourly  capacity  of  this  tramway  was 
12,000  board  feet,  when  the  logs  averaged  from  300  to  500  feet. 
Three  men  were  required  to  operate  the  tram. 

A  single-wire  gravity  tramway^  used  in  the  West  had  a  If -inch 
main  cable  2100  feet  long  suspended  between  a  tree  on  the  upper 
slope  and  one  at  the  base  of  the  grade,  as  shown  in  Fig.  82.  Auto- 
matic trips  were  placed  on  the  main  cable  at  the  loading  and 
1  See  The  Timberman,  April,  1912. 


258 


LOGGING 


unloading  points.  The  snubbing  line  passed  through  a  2-sheave 
trolley  and  had  a  ball  near  the  free  end  which  engaged  a  catch 
in  the  trolley  and  served  to  hold  the  load  in  position,  and  to  trip 
it  at  the  lower  end.  Power  for  returning  the  trolley  to  the  head 
of  the  tram  was  furnished  by  a  drum  on  a  yarding  engine  at  the 
head  of  the  slope.  A  cable  was  fastened  near  the  ends  of  a  log 
that  was  to  be  transported.  A  hook  on  the  end  of  the  snubbing 
line  was  then  caught  in  a  ring  midway  between  the  ends  of  the 
cable  and  the  log  hoisted  into  the  air.     When  the  ball  on  the 


>ter  Stop 
DETAILS  OF  TROLLEY 


Adapted  from  The  Timberman. 
Fig.  82.  —  A  Single-cable  Aerial  Tramway  in  use  in  the  Pacific  Coast  Forests 
for  lowering  Logs  on  Steep  Slopes. 


snubbing  line  struck  the  catch  in  the  trolley,  the  latter  was  freed 
from  the  stop  at  the  head  tree  and  with  its  load  passed  down  the 
main  cable  by  gravity,  the  speed  being  controlled  by  the  yarding 
engine.  On  reaching  the  lower  end  of  the  cable  the  trolley  was 
automatically  tripped  and  the  log  lowered  to  a  skidway  along  a 
railroad.  Poles  100  feet  long  were  handled  with  ease.  The 
average  time  required  to  traverse  the  distance  from  the  head  to 
the  foot  of  the  tramway  was  one  and  one-quarter  minutes. 

One  of  the  early  successful  attempts  made  to  move  logs  for 
long  distances  by  an  aerial  tramway  system  was  undertaken  in 
Idaho  in  1912  when  a  line  \\  miles  in  length  was  installed 
to  bring  timber  out  of  a  region  in  which  the  cost  of  railroad  build- 
ing was  prohibitive.  It  was  later  modified  and  used  to  bring 
out  timber  from  other  portions  of  the  forest.  This  system  was 
not  used,  however,  when  logging  railroad  construction  costs  were 
within  the  limits  which  the  company  considered  justifiable. 


AERIAL  TRAMWAYS  259 

The  tramway  was  built  with  a  standing  line  1|  inches  in 
diameter  which  was  suspended  from  spars,  spaced  from  500  to 
2000  feet  apart,  depending  upon  the  configuration  of  the  ground 
surface.  The  stationary  return  line  for  the  trolleys  was  |-inch 
since  the  chief  load  which  it  had  to  support  was  the  weight  of 
the  empty  carriers.  An  endless  |-inch  traction  line,  run  at  a 
speed  of  250  feet  per  minute,  furnished  the  tractive  force  for  moving 
the  loaded  and  empty  carriers.  This  traction  line  was  driven  by 
a  7-  by  9-inch  yarding  engine,  on  the  single-drum  of  which  a 
capstan  was  bolted.  The  traction  line  was  wound  three  times 
around  the  drum  and  then  passed  through  three  10-inch  blocks 
at  the  end  of  the  line,  so  arranged  that  two  of  the  blocks,  spaced 
on  either  side  of  a  central  one,  acted  as  spreaders  and  prevented 
too  sharp  an  angle  in  the  traction  cable.  The  standing  line  was 
"built  in  units  2000  feet  in  length,  the  ends  of  which  were  moored 
to  stumps  or  trees.  The  ends  of  two  sections  of  cable  were  4  feet 
apart,  the  intervening  space  being  spanned  by  a  section  of  U- 
shaped  metal  track.  There  were  curves  as  high  as  43  degrees, 
the  standing  line  at  such  places  being  supported  on  masts  spaced 
100  feet  apart. 

The  logs  were  loaded  from  a  skidway  at  which  the  elevation 
of  the  standing  line  was  4  feet.  A  choker,  placed  near  each  end 
of  the  log  was  caught  in  a  slot  on  the  lower  part  of  a  trolley,  and 
the  traction  cable  was  placed  on  top  of  the  choker  in  the  same  slot. 
Loads  were  spaced  from  50  to  200  feet  apart,  the  cable  being 
stopped  whenever  a  log  was  loaded.  The  capacity  of  this  system, 
operated  by  a  crew  of  18  men,  was  15,000  board  feet  per  hour. 

The  design  of  the  hanger  and  trolley  used  on  a  line  similar  to 
that  in  Idaho  is  shown  in  Fig.  83.  The  trolley  is  made  of  cast 
steel  and  has  two  12-inch  sheave  wheels  hung  on. a  frame  pivoted 
at  a  so  as  to  allow  it  to  travel  up  and  down  the  hanger  segment 
o  on  which  the  standing  line  d  rests.  The  endless  traction  line 
is  shown  at  h  and  e.  The  hanger  hook  is  pivoted  at  c  in  order 
to  give  flexibility  to  the  suspended  load  so  that  it  can  swing  in  a 
forward  or  backward  direction.  The  grip  for  holding  the  trac- 
tion line  is  shown  at  /  and  also  at  e,  the  weight  of  the  load  serving 
to  hold  the  grip  k  against  the  cable.  A  chain  is  wrapped  twice 
around  the  end  of  a  log  and  caught  in  the  hook  m  at  n  which 
is  then  closed  as  shown  in  the  cut  and  locked  with  the  clevis  I.  The 
release  of  the  load  is  accomplished  by  raising  the  clevis  I  w^hich  allows 


260 


LOGGING 


the  hook  m  to  open.  The  main  cable  is  supported  on  a  segment  o 
which  is  pivoted  to  the  hanger  so  that  it  will  rock  slightly  towards 
the  load  when  it  approaches.  Supports  for  hangers  are  placed 
from  350  to  500  feet  apart  depending  on  topography. 

Another  type,  known  as  the  endless  cable  tramway,  has  been 
used  for  the  transportation  of  shingle  bolts.     A  tram  of  this 


Fig.  83.  —  The  General  Form  of  the  Trolley  and  Hanger  used  on  Some 
Western  Aerial  Tramways. 

character  built  in  California  had  a  |-inch  moving  cable  supported 
at  frequent  intervals  on  16-inch  sheave  wheels  attached  to  cross- 
arms  fastened  on  heavy  poles. 

The  cable  was  driven  by  a  donkey  engine  geared  to  a  6-foot 
vertical  drum  around  which  the  cable  was  wound  several  times 
and  then  passed  out  over  the  sheave  blocks.  About  halfway 
between  the  two  extremities  the  tramway  turned  a  right  angle, 
the  cable  passing  around  two  loose  drums  at  this  point. 

Shingle  blocks  were  brought  to  temporary  platforms  by  chutes 
and  were  attached  by  hand  to  grips  which  were  fixed  at  intervals 
along  the  cable.  The  bolts  were  tripped  automatically  at  the 
terminus. 

One  hundred  grips  were  operated  on  the  line  one-half  of  which 


AERIAL  TRAMWAYS  261 

were  traveling  loaded  and  the  remainder  returning  empty  to 
the  loading  point.  The  average  output  per  hour  for  the  tram- 
way was  thirty  cords  of  bolts. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO   CHAPTER  XV 

Anonymous:  A  Newly  Patented  Aerial  Logging  Railway.     Western  Lum- 
berman, Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada,  December,  1912,  pp.  40-41. 
Anonymous:     Heavy  Duty   Cable  Tramway.      The  Timberman,   Sept., 

1914,  pp.  31  and  32  B. 
FoRSTER,  G.  R.:   Das  forstliehe  Transportwesen,  Wien,  1888,  pp.  242-250. 
FuJiOKA,   M.:    Notes  on  Aerial  Wire  Tramway.     Tokyo,   Japan,    1915. 
Gayer,   Karl:    Forest  Utilization.     (Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry,  2nd. 

edit.,   pp.   346-352;    translated  from  the  German  by  W.   R.   Fisher.) 

Bradbury,  Agnew  and  Company  Ltd.,  London,  1908. 
Nestos,  R.  R.:     Aerial  Snubbing  Device.     The  Timberman,   April,  1912, 

pp.  49  and  52. 
Newby,  F.  E.:    Handling  Logs  on  Steep  Ground  with  a  Gravity  Cable 

System.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  31-32. 
Riley,  F.  C:    The  Opsal  Aerial  System.     The  Timberman,  Sept.,  1914, 

pp.  33  and  34. 
Rogers,  C.  G.:   Note  on  the  Setikhola  Wire  Ropeway.     Indian  Forester, 

Feb.,  1902,  Vol.  XXVIII,  No.  2,  pp.  69-73. 
Steinbeis,  Ferdinand:  Die  Holzbringimg  im  bayerischen  Hochgebirge  unter 

den  heutigen  wirtschaftlichen  Verhaltnissen,  Munchen,  1897,  pp.  31-39. 
Wettich,  Hans:    Moderne  Transportanlagen  im  Dienste  der  Holzgewinn- 

ung  und  Holzindustrie.     Centralblatt  fiir  das  gesamte  Forstwesen,  Oct., 

1912,  pp.  451  to  460. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

TIMBER   SLIDES  AND    CHUTES  ^ 

Slides_are^  channels  used  chiefly  for  transporting  logs,  although 
pulpwood,  crossties,  firewood,  and  acid-wood,  may  also  be  handled 
in  this  manner.     There  are  two  general  types;    namely,  earth 


A  Two-pole  Running  Log  Slide.     Idaho. 


slides  and  timber  slides,  both  of  which  may  be  combined  to  form  a 
single  slide. 

They  are  in  frequent  use  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Appalachian 

1  The  theory  of  slide  design  is  treated  exhaustively  in  Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis 
der  dynamischen  Vorgange  beim  Abriesen  des  Holzes  in  Holzriesen,  by  Dr. 
F.  Angerholzer  v.  Almburg,  Centralblatt  fiir  das  gesamte  Forstwesen,  April, 
1911. 

262 


TIMBER  SLIDES  AND   CHUTES  263 

mountains,  Idaho,  Montana,  the  Northwest  and,  to  a  limited 
extent,  in  New  England  and  New  York. 

Slides  are  built  in  the  valleys  of  streams  or  down  the  slopes 
of  mountains  but  they  are  seldom  carried  across  watersheds 
because  the  cost  of  spanning  depressions  is  too  great.  They 
vary  in  length  from  a  few  hundred  feet  to  several  miles.  Th^ 
are  chiefly  used  in  mountainous  regions  where  the  stands  are 
light,  the  country  broken,  and  the  slopes  so  steep  that  logging 


Fig.  85.  —  The  Lower  End  of  a  Trailing  Log  Slide.     Note  the  corduroy  bot- 
tom over  which  the  tow  team  travels.     Idaho. 


railroad  construction  is  not  justified.  They  are  occasionally 
built  in  a  flat  country  for  transporting  logs  for  short  distances. 

Earth  Slide.  —  An  earth  or  ground  slide  is  used  for  short 
distances  on  steep  grades  where  the  soil  is  free  from  rocks  and 
debris  that  would  hinder  the  movement  of  logs.  It  is  a  fur- 
row which  is  made  by  dragging  logs  over  the  proposed  route. 
If  the  earth  is  easily  stirred  no  previous  preparation  is  necessary, 
otherwise  the  soil  must  be  loosened  in  places  by  a  pick. 

An  improved  form  called  the  "trail  slide,"  has  a  furrow  made 
in  a  manner  similar  to  the  ground  slide,  with  the  addition  of 
a  continuous  ''fender"  skid  on  the  lower  side  of  the  trail. 
These  skids  are  from  12  to  18  inches  in  diameter  and  are  fas- 


264 


LOGGING 


tened  together  by  a  lap  joint  pierced  with  a  2-inch  wooden  pin, 
or  with  a  |-inch  iron  spike.  The  joint  may  or  may  not  be  sup- 
ported on  a  cross-skid.  Fender  skids  are  kept  in  place  by  stakes 
driven  into  the  ground  on  the  outer  side.     Slides  of  this  character 


Fig.  86.  —  A  Trailing  Two-pole  Log  Slide  in  process  of  construction.     Idaho. 


are  desirable  on  side-hills,  where  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  logs 
to  leave  an  earth  trail. 

Timber  Slide.  —  A  timber  slide  has  a  trough  or  chute  made 
of  round  or  sawed  timbers  supported  on  cross-skids.  On  low 
grades  where  logs  will  not  run  by  gravity  it  is  necessary  to  clear 
out  a  right-of-way  10  or  12  feet  wide  which  serves  both  for  the 
slide  and  as  a  pathway  for  the  animals  which  draw  the  tow  of 
logs.  Where  the  grade  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  logs  to  run  by 
gravity,  a  right-of-way  8  feet  wide  is  ample. 


TIMBER   SLIDES  AND   CHUTES 


265 


A  common  form  of  round  timber  slide  has  two  parallel  timbers 
supported  on  cross-skids  placed  from  8  to  15  feet  apart.  The 
timbers  are  from  9  to  18  inches  in  diameter  and  from  20  to  60 
feet  long  and  are  cut  from  trees  having  a  minimum  taper.  A 
log  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter  with  a  hewed  face  or  a  4-  by  8-inch 
plank  may  be  placed  between  the  two  slide  timbers  and  fastened 
to  the  cross-skids.     The  poles  are  placed  from  4  to  6  inches  apart 


^^bS^'^'-* 


Fig.  87.  —  The  Terminus  of  a  Log  Slide.     Idaho. 

at  the  base  on  a  two-pole  slide  and  from  8  to  15  inches  apart  when  a 
third  pole  is  used.  The  timbers  usually  are  placed  with  their 
butts  up  grade  because  they  sliver  less,  and  are  joined  together 
by  a  simple  lap  joint.  They  are  sunk  into  a  skid  directly  be- 
neath them  and  fastened  to  it  by  Ij-  or  2-inch  hardwood  treenails, 
or  |-  by  12-inch  iron  spikes.  In  order  to  strengthen  the  slide 
the  joints  are  always  broken. 

On  level  stretches  a  slide  is  built  on  the  ground  and  requires 
a  minimum  of  bracing  and  support,  while  on  steep  pitches  and 
in  crossing  depressions  it  is  supported  on  crib  work  and  is  thor- 
oughly braced  because  rigidity  is  important. 

When  the  round  logs  are  in  place  and  securely  fastend  to  the 


266 


LOGGING 


cross-skids,  men  are  setjjo  wjork  to  iies^  the  inner  faces  of  the 
slide  timbers.  This  is  particular  work  because  any  irregularities 
on  the  face  of  the  slide  will  cause  logs  to  jump.  The  scoring  line 
is  laid  off  with  a  chalk  line  and  the  timbers  then  scored  with  a 
felling  ax  and  finally  hewed  smooth  with  a  broadax. 

A  common  method  of  dumping  logs  from  a  slide  is  to  build 
one  side  several  inches  lower  than  the  other.     Another  method 


Whip-poor-will  Switch  used  for  throwing  Logs  from  a  Slide. 


used  where  there  are  several  dumping  grounds  is  to  hew  down 
the  side  of  the  slide  on  the  dump  side  and  place  a  switch  called 
a  "  whippoorwill "  diagonally  across  the  shde  timbers.  The 
lower  part  of  the  slide  ends  at  a  landing,  where  the  grade  should 


Fig.  89. 


A   Sawed-timber   Slide,   a   Form   sometimes   used   when   Sawed 
Material  is  available. 


be  level  or  slightly  ascending  to  check  the  speed  of  the  logs. 
When  the  log  strikes  the  switch  it  is  shunted  off.  When  it  is 
desired  to  send  logs  past  a  given  dump  the  upper  end  of  the  switch 
is  removed  and  placed  across  the  depression  on  the  slide  timber 
and  fastened  by  two  heavy  treenails. 

The  life  of  a  pole  slide  is  from  six  to  ten  years,  when  kept  in 
repair. 


TIMBER  SLIDES  AND  CHUTES 


267 


Trailing  slides  may  be  made  from  sawed  timbers  when  the 
latter  can  be  readily  secured.  A  type  of  patent  portable  slide 
used  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  is  shown  in  Fig.  90.  The 
timbers  are  three  in  number  and  are  made  8  feet  long  for  ease  in 
handling.     Maple  and  birch  are  preferred  for  timbers,   which 


;<-3"->|< — 6" — 5j 

Fig.  90.  —  The  Sykes  Trailing  Log  Slide. 


may  be  made  from  the  lower  grade  material.  They  meet  over 
the  center  of  a  plate,  Fig.  90a,  which  may  be  placed  flat  on  the 
ground,  or  supported  on  crib  work  when  it  is  necessary  to  elevate 
the  slide  in  order  to  prevent  abrupt  changes  in  grade.  The  main 
slide  timbers  A  are  made  in  the  form  of  a  trapezoid,  two  being 
sawed  from  one  rectangular  piece  as  shown  in  Fig.  90b. 

A  slide  of  this  character  is  well  adapted  to  conditions  where 
a  trailing  chute  can  be  used  to.  advantage  and  is  more  economical 
than  a  pole  slide  because  the  various  parts  can  be  used  repeatedly. 
When  a  slide  is  being  built  the  materials  are  brought  to  the 
foot  of  it  and  then  dragged  by  horses  to  the  upper  end  where  con- 


268  LOGGING 

struction  is  in  progress.  When  a  slide  is  being  dismantled  the 
process  is  reversed  and  the  timbers,  as  they  are  taken  from  the 
plates,  are  drawn  down  the  slide  to  its  lower  terminus.  Since  the 
slide  timbers  are  not  spiked  to  the  plates  they  can  be  easily  re- 
moved or  put  in  place. 

A  right-of-way  about  20  feet  wide  is  required  when  a  team  is 
used  to  draw  the  logs.     This  gives  ample  room  for  the  slide  struc- 


FiG.  91.  —  A  Fore-and-aft  or  Pole  Road  used  with  a  Road  Engine.     Pacific 
Coast. 

ture  and  for  a  runway  along  the  side  of  it.  Tows  of  1000  board 
feet  have  been  handled  at  one  time,  and  in  small  timber  one 
team  will  put  in  about  7000  board  feet  daily  on  a  1-mile  haul. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast,  slides  called  "fore-and-aft"  roads  or 
"pole  chutes"  are  used  for  trailing  logs  from  yarding  engines 
to  a  landing,  when  power  for  moving  the  logs  is  provided  by  a 
road  engine. 

A  fore-and-aft  road  has  a  trough  from  two  to  five  poles  wide,  made 
from  long  straight  timber  with  a  minimum  diameter  of  10  inches. 
The  ends  of  the  poles  are  beveled,  fitted  together  and  drift- 


TIMBER  SLIDES  AND  CHUTES  269 

bolted  to  skids  placed  transversely  under  them  at  intervals  of 
from  10  to  15  feet,  thus  providing  a  stable  foundation.  Side 
braces  placed  at  intervals  of  15  or  20  feet  prevent  the  poles 
from  spreading.     The  slide  follows  the  ground  level  except  where 


Fig.  92.  —  A  Timber  Chute  for  bringing  Logs  dowTi  Steep  Slopes.     New 
Hampshire. 

it  crosses  deep  depressions  or  streams,  when  it  is  supported  on 
cribwork.  The  roads  are  built  as  straight  as  possible  to  decrease 
the  loss  of  engine  power  through  friction. 

A  fore-and-aft  road  requires  from  90,000  to  120,000  board  feet  of 


270  LOGGING 

timber  per  mile  according  to  the  amount  of  cribbing  neces- 
sary. 

Chutes  also  are  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  as  the  terminus 
of  a  skid  or  pole  road,  where  the  logs  are  dumped  into  a  stream, 
pond  or  other  body  of  water.  These  chutes  have  a  head  which 
is  cross-skidded  like  a  skid  road,  the  "slip"  or  chute  proper  and 
the  "apron"  or  terminus.  The  cross-skids  at  the  head  offer  less 
friction  than  a  pole  chute  and  enable  the  logs  to  be  readily  started. 
The  poles  in  the  chute  proper  are  drift-bolted  to  heavy  cross- 
stringers  set  at  10-foot  intervals  on  the  upper  part,  and 
closer  together  near  the  base  where  the  strain  is  greatest.  Side 
poles  serve  as  fenders  to  keep  the  logs  in  the  chute.  The  apron 
extends  out  over  the  water,  nearly  parallel  to  the  surface,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  logs  from  striking  bottom.  The  change 
in  gradient  from  the  slip  to  the  apron  must  be  gradual  or  the 
impact  of  the  logs  against  the  latter  will  soon  destroy  it.  Chutes 
are  used  only  when  no  other  form  of  transport  is  feasible  for 
even  under  the  most  favorable  operating  conditions  many  logs 
are  broken  or  damaged. 

In  the  Northeast  chutes  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  92 
are  occasionally  built  for  bringing  logs  down  steep  slopes. 

Another  form  of  rough  chute  used  in  the  same  region  is  built 
as  follows:  A  strip  5  or  6  feet  wide  is  cleared  down  the  slope. 
Logs  are  then  snaked  to  a  skidway  at  the  head  of  the  cleared 
strip  ready  to  be  sent  down  by  gravity.  The  first  logs  that  go 
down  are  used  to  form  a  crude  trough  of  parallel  logs  down  which 
the  bulk  of  the  timber  passes.  Chutes  of  this  character  work 
best  after  a  heavy  frost  or  a  light  snowfall. 

In  parts  of  the  Appalachian  region  the  logs  are  frequently 
brought  down  the  beds  of  the  mountain  streams.  Where  the 
grades  are  steep  and  the  bottom  is  smooth,  little  preparation  is 
needed,  but  where  the  bed  is  rough,  poles  are  laid  lengthwise  in 
the  stream.  The  logs  are  started  at  the  head  of  a  cove  and  pass 
down  the  slide  with  great  rapidity,  collecting  in  a  rough-and- 
tumble  skidway  at  its  base.  Although  timber  is  often  damaged 
by  breakage  this  is  offset  by  the  cheapness  of  transportation. 

Rail  Slides.  —  Slides  for  short-distance  transportation  of  logs 
by  gravity  have  been  made  from  steel  rails  mounted  on  suit- 
able blocking,  where  grades  are  too  steep  for  the  use  of  wheeled 
vehicles.     Standard-sized  crossties,  spaced  10  feet  apart,  serve  as 


TIMBER  SLIDES   AND  CHUTES  271 

a  support  for  the  slide  structure.  These  may  be  laid  directly  on 
the  ground  or  supported  on  crib  work  if  it  is  necessary  to  elevate 
them  in  order  to  avoid  abrupt  changes  in  grade.  Blocks  3  or  4 
feet  long  with  one  end  beveled  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  are  sawed 
from  crossties,  and  drift-bolted  on  top  of  the  sills  so  that  there 
is  a  space  of  about  24  inches  between  the  nearest  points.  Two 
45-pound  steel  rails,  spaced  10  inches  center  to  center,  are  then 
fastened  with  railroad  spikes  to  the  sills  between  the  side  blocks. 
Another  rail  also  is  spiked  near  the  top  of  each  sloping  face  of 
the  side  blocks.  Rail  joints  are  braced  with  angle  bars,  properly 
bolted.  The  advantage  of  this  type  of  slide  is  that  it  can  be 
readily  moved  from  one  site  to  another  and  can  be  installed  by 
the  logging  railroad  steel-laying  crew  at  a  daily  rate  of  from  40 
to  60  feet  of  slide  per  man.  On  one  operation  a  slide  of  this  type 
was  used  to  lower  logs  from  the  top  of  a  steep  grade  to  a  loading 
point  along  the  logging  railroad.  The  logs  were  brought  to  the 
slide  on  wagons,  and  unloaded  on  skids  which  sloped  down  from 
the  upper  side  towards  a  set  of  dead  rollers  at  the  head  of  the 
slide.  The  logs  were  pushed  forward  on  the  rollers  by  hand  to 
the  slide  down  which  they  moved  by  gravity.  This  type  of  slide 
is  well  adapted  to  moving  rough  logs  since  the  projecting  stubs 
do  not  catch  on  the  slide. 

UPGRADES   .-' 

The  grade  is  an  important  feature  of  all  slides.  On  trailing 
slides  the  grades  are  so  low  that  logs  will  not  run  by  gravity, 
and  animal  or  other  power  is  required  to  keep  them  in  motion. 
Running  slides  have  a  grade  which  is  steep  enough  to  cause  the 
logs  to  move  by  gravity. 

Slides  vary  in  gradient  at  different  points  along  the  line  and 
in  some  parts  they  may  be  trailing  slides  and  in  other  sections  run- 
ing  slides.  The  grade  necessary  to  make  logs  run  by  gravity 
depends  on  the  character  and  condition  of  the  slide,  the  kind  and 
size  of  the  timber  and  whether  the  slide  is  used  dry,  greased  or 
iced.  The  greater  the  weight  of  the  log  the  faster  its  speed,  hence 
large  or  long  logs  will  run  on  lower  grades  than  small  or  short 
ones.  Heavy  hardwood  logs  will  run  on  lower  grades  than 
most  softwoods,  and  peeled  logs  will  run  on  lower  grades  than 
unpeeled  ones. 

Earth  slides  with  a  25  per  cent  grade  may  be  used  during  the 


272 


LOGGING 


summer  but  if  the  grade  is  as  low  as  10  per  cent  they  are  used 
to  best  advantage  during  cold  weather  when  they  can  be  iced. 

During  the  warm  season,  horses  often  are  used  to  drag  logs 
in  earth  slides.  Several  logs  are  fastened  together  by  grabs 
into  a  "turn"  and  a  team  is  attached  to  the  forward  log.  In  cold 
weather  animals  can  be  wholly  or  partially  dispensed  with. 

Iced  timber  shdes  are  most  efficient  and,  therefore,  may  be 
used  on  the  lowest  grades;  those  lubricated  with  skid  grease 
rank  next;  while  dry  timber  slides  are  the  least  efficient. 

The  following  table  of  grades  for  running  timber  slides  is  from 
European  practice:^ 


Material  transported 

Per  cent  of  grade 

Dry  slide 

Ice  slide 

Firewood              

20-35 

30 

1^20 

6-12 
3-6 

Crossties                      

Logs 

Grades  of  25  per  cent  are  considered  best  for  dry  running 
timber  slides  in  which  large  logs  are  to  be  handled,  although  45 
per  cent  may  be  used  on  short  stretches  if  the  slide  is  built  strong 
and  rigid.  The  minimum  grade  should  not  be  less  than  10 
per  cent. 

Timber  slides  with  maximum  grades  of  80  per  cent  and  an 
average  grade  of  60  per  cent  have  been  operated,  but  are  not 
desirable  because  of  the  heavy  loss  through  breakage. 


Curves  on  slides  must  be  laid  out  with  reference  to  the  length 
of  material  to  be  handled  and  the  size  of  the  chute.  Sharp 
curves  are  always  undesirable  and  especially  so  on  steep  pitches 
because  the  wear  is  excessive  and  logs  are  liable  to  jump  out  of 
the  slide. 

It  is  necessary  on  2-  and  3-pole  slides  to  elevate  the  outer 
timber,  the  amount  of  elevation  depending  on  the  degree  of 
curvature,  the  grade  and  the  character  of  material  that  is  being 

i  From  Forest  Utilization,  by  Karl  Gayer.  (Vol.  V,  "Schlich's  Manual  of 
Forestry,"  p.  32r).) 


TIMBER  SLIDES  AND  CHUTES  273 

transported.     A  radius  less  than  200  feet  is  not  desirable  for 
any  form  of  slide. 

OPERATION 

Running  slides  are  more  expensive  to  operate  than  trailing 
ones  because  of  their  higher  construction  and  maintenance  ex- 
pense, and  the  added  cost  of  returning  to  the  slide  the  logs  which 
have  jumped  out  of  it. 

Logs  usually  are  rolled  directly  into  slides  either  from  large 
skidways  on  which  many  logs  are  stored  in  advance  of  chuting, 
or  from  small  skidways  where  the  logs  are  sent  down  as  they 
are  yarded.  In  some  cases  skidways  are  dispensed  with,  the 
timbers  being  spread  apart  at  the  head  of  the  slide  and  the  logs 
dragged  directly  into  it. 

Logs  are  sent  down  singly  on  running  slides.     When  a  part 
or  all  of  the  slide  is  a  trailing  one  from  ten  to  forty  logs  are  made 
up  into  a  turn,  but  if  there  is 
a  possibility  of  the  logs   run- 
ning even  for  a  short  distance 
they  are  not  fastened  together. 

In  making  up  a  turn  on  a 
trailing   slide   a   log    is    rolled 
from    the    skidway    into    the 
slide,  and  is  then  hauled  down  pj^   93. -An  "L"  Hook   used   for 
a  log  length  by  a  tow  horse  or      attaching    the    Tow   Line    to    the 
team,  so  that  the  next  log  may      Turn  of  Logs. 
be  rolled  in.     Both  are  then 

moved  ahead  for  another  log  length  by  attaching  the  tow 
line  to  the  rear  of  the  last  log.  The  process  is  repeated  until 
a  turn  is  made  up.  The  team  is  then  hitched  to  a  chain  or  rope 
from  30  to  50  feet  long,  at  the  end  of  which  is  an  "  L"  hook, 
swamp  hook,  grab  hook  or  "jay  grab."  The  hook  is  then  attached 
to  the  last  log  and  the  tow  is  started  for  the  landing,  and  if  the  logs 
begin  to  nm  in  the  slide  it  may  be  readily  detached.  The  logs 
are  dragged  to  the  landing,  or  until  the  grade  becomes  sufficient 
for  them  to  run,  whereupon  the  tow  is  started  down  the  slide 
and  the  team  returns  to  the  head  for  more  logs.  The  tow  is 
picked  up  by  another  team  on  the  first  "dead"  stretch  and  dragged 
to  the  next  running  portion  of  the  slide. 

Caterpillar    tractor    draft    has    been    substituted   successfully 


274 


LOGGING 


for  animal  draft  both  in  the  Northeast  and  in  the  West. 
Machines  as  small  as  the  2-ton  and  as  large  as  the  10-ton 
class  have  been  used.  They  possess  advantages  over  animals 
on  long  hauls,  both  because  of  their  greater  average  speed  and 
because  they  do  not  mire  as  badly  as  horses  on  bad  bottom. 
On  a  1-mile  haul  in  eastern  Oregon,  a  10-ton  caterpillar  tractor 
has  made  from  twelve  to  sixteen  trips  per  day,  hauling  about 
3500  board  feet  per  trip,  doing  work  which  formerly  required 
six  teams. 

During  the  summer  season  the  "slow"  stretches  of  a  slide  are 
watered,  or  are  greased  with  skid  grease  or  crude  petroleum  to 


r^lr^ 


Fig.  94.  —  Two  Common  Forms  of  Goose-necks  used  for  checking  the  Speed 
of  Logs  on  Heavy  Grades,  and  the  Manner  of  placing  them  in  the  Shde 
Timbers. 


reduce  friction.  During  the  cold  season  such  stretches  are 
iced  by  throwing  water  on  them  at  night.  If  the  stretch  is 
short  and  the  water  is  close  at  hand  it  may  be  poured  on  with  a 
bucket,  otherwise  a  barrel  is  used  in  which  two  holes  are  bored 
in  one  end,  one  hole  being  over  each  slide  stick.  The  barrel  is 
then  filled  with  water  and  lowered  down  the  slide  during  the 
night. 

On  steep  slopes  where  logs  run  fast  and  are  apt  to  leave  the 
slide,  several  devices  are  used  to  check  the  speed.  A  common 
one  is  a  "goose-neck"  or  "scotch"  made  from  1^-  or  2-inch 
round  or  square  iron  fashioned  as  shown  in  Fig.  94a  and  b. 
It  is  placexl  in  a  hole  bored  through  a  slide  timber  and  the  prong 
digs  into  the  logs  as  they  pass  over  it  and  their  progress  is 
retarded.     Logs  will  leave  the  slide  unless  the  goose-necks  are 


TIMBER  SLIDES  AND   CHUTES  275 

placed  opposite  each  other.  The  holes  in  which  the  goose-necks 
are  fitted  are  bored  entirely  through  the  slide  timbers  so  that 
dirt  cannot  accumulate  in  them.  When  not  in  use  the  goose- 
necks may  be  removed  or  dropped  into  notches  cut  into  the 
slide  timbers  for  that  purpose. 

Another  form  of  brake  has  a  log  one  end  of  which  is  pivoted 
to  a  framework  erected  above  the  slide.  The  free  end  is  armed 
with  spikes  that  drag  on  the  logs  as  they  pass  under  them. 

On  long  slides  which  have  both  very  steep  and  slight  pitches  the 
use  of  animal  draft  for  moving  logs  on  the  slow  places  is  at  times 
impracticable,  especially  in  summer,  because  of  the  long  steep 
climb  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  elevations.  Donkey  engines 
placed  at  the  foot  of  slides  have  proved  successful  both  in  holding 
logs  back  on  steep  grades  and  in  pulling  them  over  level  stretches. 
A  |-inch  line  is  used  and,  in  a  tow  of  from  6  to  10  logs,  the 
main  cable  is  attached  both  to  the  rear  and  the  front  logs.  It  is 
necessary  to  select  large  round  logs  for  the  front  and  rear,  other- 
wise the  tow  has  a  tendency  to  buckle  when  being  pulled  along 
the  slide.  Straight  chutes  are  essential  when  a  yarding  engine  is 
used  because  logs  will  leave  the  chute  when  the  pull  comes  on  a 
curve.  The  greatest  success  in  the  use  of  a  donkey  engine  in 
connection  with  log  slides  is  in  dry  trailing  chutes.  The  daily 
capacity  of  one  slide  in  Idaho  which  was  2000  feet  long  was 
from  20,000  to  30,000  board  feet. 

The  control  of  logs  on  a  chute  so  steep  that  the  logs  either  left 
the  slide  before  they  reached  the  bottom  or  were  badly  damaged 
at  the  bottom  by  breakage  was  solved  by  an  Oregon  logger  in 
the  following  manner. ^  The  chute  was  1600  feet  long  and  the 
difference  in  elevation  between  the  head  and  foot  of  the  slide 
was  600  feet,  A  6  horse-power  gasoline  engine  was  installed 
at  the  head  of  the  slide  and  belted  to  the  shaft  of  a  donkey  drum, 
which  was  equipped  with  a  hand  brake  and  a  friction  clutch. 
The  engine  was  run  continuously,  power  being  transmitted  from 
the  shaft  to  the  drum  by  the  friction  clutch.  A  ^^-inch  cable 
was  wound  on  the  drum  and  to  the  free  end  a  14-  by  40-inch 
round  hold-back  block  was  attached  to  the  under  side  of  which 
a  4-  by  6-  by  30-inch  rudder  was  fastened  which  served  to  keep 
the  hold-back  block  in  position.  The  cable  was  attached  to 
the  base  of  the  front  end  of  the  hold-back  block  and  then  carried 
1  The  Timberman,  March,  1915,  p.  36. 


276 


LOGGING 


diagonally  through  the  block  to  the  upper  rear  end.^  The  slide 
timbers  were  spaced  5  inches  apart  and  the  cable  ran  in  this 
space  underneath  the  turn  of  logs.  An  automatic  dump  was 
installed  at  the  foot  of  the  slide  by  cutting  a  rectangular  section 
15  by  60  inches  in  size  from  the  slide  timbers."^  A  turn  of  logs 
was  made  up  at  the  head  of  the  slide  behind  the  hold-back  block 


Fig.  95. 


Adapt,:,!  fmm  The  Timbern 

A  Snubbing  Device  for  lowering  Logs  down  a  Chute. 


and  then  lowered  by  gravity,  the  speed  being  controlled  by 
means  of  a  friction  brake.  When  the  hold-back  block  reached 
the  automatic  dump  the  pressure  of  the  logs  behind  it  caused 
it  to  turn  downward  into  the  slot  in  the  slide  and  the  logs  passed 
over  it.  The  friction  was  then  thrown  into  gear  and  as  the  drum 
reeled  in  the  cable  the  hold-back  block  was  pulled  up  to  the  head 
1  See  Fig.  95a.     ^  See  Fig.  956. 


TIMBER  SLIDES  AND   CHUTES  277 

of  the  slide.  A  round  trip  was  made  in  8  minutes,  from  1500 
to  2500  board  feet  being  lowered  at  one  time.  Two  men  were 
required  to  operate  this  system,  one  to  roll  logs  into  the  chute 
and  the  other  to  manipulate  the  drum. 

Several  slide  tenders  are  required  to  keep  slides  greased  and 
watered,  adjust  goose-necks  and  make  repairs.  As  a  general 
rule,  several  kinds  and  sizes  of  logs  are  run  indiscriminately 
during  the  day,  and  it  is  necessary  to  use  goose-necks  on  large 
logs  and  to  remove  them  for  the  slower  running  small  logs.  Where 
logs  have  jumped  out,  laborers  are  required  to  return  them  to 
the  slide.  This  is  done  by  building  an  improvised  chute  from  the 
ground  to  the  slide,  and  dragging  the  logs  up  with  a  team  and 
tow  line,  or  by  rolling  the  logs  up  by  hand  on  spiked  skids.  This 
work  is  done  after  the  season's  sliding  has  been  completed. 


Slides  vary  greatly  in  cost  depending  on  their  character,  the 
amount  of-  cribbing  required,  the  number  of  curves,  the  season 
of  the  year  in  which  they  are  built  and  the  efficiency  of  the  labor. 

Running  slides  are  the  most  expensive  form  to  construct, 
because  they  must  be  built  stronger  and  more  rigid  than  other 
forms.  Curves  require  about  one-third  more  labor  to  build  than 
straight  stretches.  Slides  constructed  during  the  winter  cost 
about  25  per  cent  more  to  build  than  during  warm  weather  and 
arc  often  troublesome  in  the  spring  when  the  frost  leaves  the 
ground. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO   CHAPTER   XVI 

VON  Almburg,  Dr.  F.  Angerholzer:  Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis  der  djTiamis- 
chen  Vorgange  beim  Abriesen  des  Holzes  in  Holzriesen.  Centralblatt 
fiir  das  gesamte  Forstwesen,  April,  1911,  pp.  161-179. 

FoRSTER,  G.  R.:  Das  Forstliche  Transportwesen,  pp.  45-68.  Mortiz 
Perles,  Wien,  1888. 

Gayer,  Karl:  Forest  Utilization.  (SchUch's  Manual  of  Forestry,  Vol.  V, 
pp.  316-322;  translated  by  W.  R.  Fisher.)  Bradbury^  Agnew  and  Co., 
Ltd.,  London,  1908. 

KuBELKA,  August:  Der  Riesweg  als  Holzbringungsanstalt  des  Hochge- 
birges.  Centralblatt  fur  das  gesamte  Forstwesen.  Wien,  Aug.-Sept., 
1903,  pp.  325-377. 

ScHONWiESE,  Heinrich:  Die  Wegriesen  im  Reichforste  Cadino.  Central- 
blatt fiir  das  gesamte  Forstwesen,  Aug.-Sept.,  1903,  pp.  377-387. 

Stoddard,  E.  I.:  Chute  Logging  in  Eastern  Oregon.  The  Timberman, 
July,  1920,  p.  35. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
FOREST  RAILROADS 

POLE    ROADS 

Pole  roads  were  formerly  used  by  lumbermen  because  the 
material  for  construction  could  be  secured  on  the  operation  at 
no  expense  except  for  labor  and  stumpage  but  they  are  primitive 
in  character  and  are  now  seldom  used  except  on  an  occasional 
small  operation  where  sawed  wooden  rails  or  steel  rails  cannot 
be  secured  at  reasonable  cost.  Animals  are  used  as  draft  power, 
although  on  down  grades  the  cars  may  descend  by  gravity  under 
control  of  a  brakeman.  Pole  roads  are  seldom  built  for  dis- 
tances greater  than  from  2  to  2^  miles. 

A  25-foot  right-of-way  is  required  from  which  all  brush  must 
be  removed  and  stumps  grubbed  out  or  cut  level  with  the  ground. 
The  grade  is  then  established.  Turnouts  for  returning  teams 
are  provided  at  intervals  of  from  |  to  |  of  a  mile.  On  a  track 
of  this  character,  ascending  grades  greatly  decrease  the  hauling 
ability  of  animals.  The  maximum  grade  for  loaded  cars  hauled 
by  two  animals  is  1.5  per  cent.  Where  eight  horses  are  used 
trams  with  15  per  cent  ascending  grades  on  the  route  to  the  woods 
and  3  per  cent  ascending  grades  for  loaded  cars  en  route  to  the 
mill  have  been  used  successfully. 

The  roads  have  a  gauge  of  5  or  6  feet,  and  the  rails  are  long, 
straight  poles  from  9  to  12  inches  in  diameter,  with  as  little 
taper  as  can  be  secured.  They  are  hewed  on  the  inner  face  to 
reduce  friction  on  the  wheel  flange  and  are  laid  with  the 
butts  all  in  one  direction,  the  top  of  one  pole  being  lap-jointed 
to  the  butt  of  the  following  one.  When  they  are  not  of  the 
same  size  at  the  joint  they  are  hewed  down  until  the  car  wheels 
can  pass  over  them  readily. 

On  a  hard  bottom  the  poles  are  laid  directly  on  the  ground 
and  are  ballasted  to  make  an  even  track.  They  are  braced 
at  frequent  intervals  by  stakes  driven  close  to  them  on  the  out- 

278 


FOREST  RAILROADS  279 

side.  At  curves  where  the  track  is  likely  to  spread,  braces  are 
placed  between  the  rails  and  also  between  the  outer  rail  and  trees 
or  stmnps.  Poles  are  held  together  at  the  lap-joints  and  fastened 
to  the  cross-skids  by  means  of  wooden  treenails  from  1|  to  2  inches 
in  diameter,  which  are  driven  into  the  ground  through  a  hole  bored 
in  the  pole  and  skid.     Cross-skids  are  used  only  on  soft  ground 


Fhotofjraph  by  H.  R.  McMillan. 

Fig.  96.  —  A  Pole  Tram-road  for  Summer  Use.     The  poles  are  removed 
during  the  winter  and  the  right-of-way  used  as  a  sled  road.     Idaho. 

and  are  spaced  from  6  to  8  feet  apart.  They  are  short  round 
blocks  placed  under  the  rails  but  they  do  not  extend  across  the 
track  as  they  would  interfere  with  the  foothold  of  the  draft 
animals. 

A  crew  for  building  a  pole  road  comprises  six  men  and  one 
team.  When  the  poles  can  be  obtained  along  the  right-of-way 
a  crew  will  cut  and  peel  the  necessary  ones  and  build  500  feet  of 
straight  track  daily.  Curves  require  about  one-third  more  labor 
than  straight  track. 


tl.  C.  State  Colk^^ 


280 


LOGGING 


The  maintenance  of  a  pole  road  is  low.  The  chief  items  aside 
from  the  occasional  replacement  of  a  pole,  are  the  removal  of 
splinters  from  the  rails,  usually  with  a  spade,  and  greasing  the 
rails  with  skid  grease.  One  man  can  maintain  2  miles  of  track 
on  half  time. 

The  cars  are  built  with  a  heavy  framework  of  sawed  timbers 
mounted  on  four  wheels,   each  of  which   is  about  42  inches  in 


Photograph  by  H.  R.  McMillan. 

Fig.  97.  —  A  Car  used  on  a  Pole  Tram-road.     The  capacity  of  this  car  is 
approximately  1400  board  feet.     Idaho. 

diameter  with  a  slightly  concave  face,  a  4-inch  flange  on  the  inner 
side  and  a  2-inch  flange  on  the  outer.  Each  wheel  turns  on  a 
2-inch  fixed  axle  provided  with  a  side  play  of  6  inches  so  that  the 
wheels  can  adjust  themselves  to  the  inequalities  of  the  rail  and 
the  uneven  gauge. 

The  bunks  are  10  feet  long  and  from  10  to  12  feet  apart.  A 
reach  which  passes  through  the  body  of  the  car  and  projects  2^ 
feet  beyond  the  bunks  serves  as  a  point  of  attachment  for  the 
draft  power. 

Cars  of  tliis  character  drawn  by  two  horses  will  carry  1400 
board  feet  per  load.  A  team  will  haul  loaded  cars  from  8  to  10 
miles  daily. 


FOREST   RAILROADS  281 

On  an  Idaho  pole  tram  1^  miles  in  length,  two  horses  hauled 
from  7500  to  9000  board  feet  daily,  each  car  load  containing 
approximately  1600  feet.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  a  team  of  eight 
horses  hauled  20,000  feet  daily  on  a  1^-mile  tram  road,  each 
car  averaging  5000  feet. 

Two  horses  are  commonly  used  although  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
as  many  as  eight  are  employed  on  some  of  the  roads. 

Light  geared  locomotives  have  been  used  to  a  limited  extent 
but  they  are  not  adapted  to  this  type  of  rail. 

STRINGER   ROADS 

The  stringer  road  soon  superseded  the  pole  road  on  operations 
where  a  sawmill  was  available  for  sawing  rails. 

The  early  stringer  roads  were  operated  by  animal  power  but 
light  geared  locomotives  or  motor  trucks  are  now  used  almost 
exclusively  except  for  stocking  very  small  mills. 

Stringer  roads  have  a  greater  capacity  than  pole  roads  and 
may  be  used  to  stock  a  single-band  mill.  They  are  employed 
chiefly  on  operations  where  suitable  hardwoods  are  abundant  for 
rails,  where  the  operation  is  remote  and  the  cost  of  transporting 
steel  rails  is  excessive,  and  when  the  length  of  haul  is  comparative- 
ly short  and  the  daily  output  limited.  Such  conditions  exist  in 
the  hardwood  region  of  the  Appalachian  mountains  where  this 
type  of  road  is  common. 

The  disadvantages  of  a  stringer  road  as  compared  with  steel- 
railroads  are  that  the  rails  become  soft  and  wear  out  rapidly  in 
rainy  and  wet  weather;  wheel  flanges  climb  wooden  rails  more 
readily  than  steel ;  the  cost  of  repairs  and  materials  for  a  year's 
operation  will  largely  meet  the  first  cost  of  steel  rails;  and  the 
road  is  about  75  per  cent  less  efficient. 

The  right-of-way  for  a  stringer  road  must  be  carefully  graded 
and  crib  bridges  or  trestles  built  where  necessary.  The  grades 
should  not  exceed  3  per  cent  on  the  main  line  and  8  per  cent 
on  spurs.  The  preparation  of  the  roadbed  is  as  expensive  as 
for  a  narrow-gauge  steel  road,  the  only  saving  effected  being 
the  original  cost  of  rails. 

A  stringer  road  3  or  4  miles  in  length  is  limited  in  capacity  to 
40,000  or  50,000  board  feet  of  logs  per  day. 

The  rails  are  6  by  6  inches  in  size  and  are  composed  of  two 
sawed  pieces,  each  3  by  6  inches,  placed  one  on  top  of  the  other. 


282 


LOGGING 


They  are  fastened  to  the  crossties  and  to  each  other  by  wire 
spikes.  The  top  rail  must  be  of  some  wood  that  will  not  splinter 
readily,  such  as  beech  and  hard  maple.  Sometimes  the  rail  is 
also  covered  with  strap  iron  to  prevent  wear.  The  lower  rail 
may  be  made  of  an  inferior  grade  of  timber  such  as  wormy  oak. 
The  rails  are  spiked  to  round  crossties  from  8  to  12  inches  in 
diameter  and  7  feet  long,  which  are  cut  along  the  track  and  are 


A  Stringer  Road  in  the  Appalachian  Mountain  Region. 


spaced  from  18  to  24  inches  apart  on  main  lines,  and  from  24  to 
30  inches  on  spurs.     The  gauge  is  3|  or  4  feet. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  of  a  stringer  road  in  constant  use  is 
high  because  the  rails  sliver  badly  and  break,  requiring  such 
frequent  repairs  after  the  first  six  months  that  the  road  must  be 
practically  rebuilt  in  two  years. 

The  cost  of  constructing  stringer  roads,  exclusive  of  the  value 
of  the  timber  used,  ranges  between  $800  and  $1200  per  mile, 
but  if  many  bridges  are  required  the  cost  is  higher. 

Geared  locomotives  are  used,  the  weights  varying  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  tons  on  main  lines  and  from  fifteen  to  seventeen 
tons  on  spurs.     Larger  ones  are  too  heavy  for  a  wooden  track. 

A  light-woi.ulit,  2-truck,  8-wheeled  skeleton  car  is  preferred  for 


FOREST  RAILROADS  283 

those  roads.  The  wheels  are  20  or  24  inches  in  diameter  with  a 
6-inch  tread  which  helps  to  keep  them  on  the  tracks  where  the 
gauge  is  too  wide.  Cars  of  this  character,  built  for  handling  logs 
up  to  20  feet  in  length,  are  from  22  to  24  feet  long  with  bunks 
7h  or  8  feet  wide,  and  are  equipped  with  handbrakes.  Each 
car  weighs  about  2  tons,  has  a  rated  capacity  of  from  15,000 
to  20,000  pounds  weight  and  usually  carries  from  1000  to  1200 
board  feet  of  logs. 

A  more  simple  type  of  stringer  road  for  use  with  motor  trucks 
has  been  used  successfully  in  the  South  during  the  last  few  years. 
The  track  consists  of  3-  by  4-inch  wooden  rails  spiked  on  2-  by 
8-inch  stringers  placed  on  the  ground.  Crossties  are  not  used 
to  support  the  track.  In  one  case,  power  was  furnished  by  a 
2^-ton  motor  truck  with  double-flanged  steel  tires,  which 
pulled  a  two-wheeled  trailer.  The  latter  had  double-flanged 
steel  tires  and  the  wheels  were  mounted  on  fixed  axles  which 
permitted  a  side  play  of  several  inches.  This  equipment  carried 
from  1000  to  1500  board  feet  per  load,  and  a  round  trip  of  f 
mile  was  made  in  from  20  to  30  minutes. 

STEEL-RAIL    ROADS 

The  successful  use  of  steel-rail  logging  roads  began  in  1876, 
when  Scott  Gerrish,  a  logger  in  southern  Michigan,  built  a 
railroad  for  transporting  logs  from  Lake  George  to  the  Muskegon 
River  down  which  they  were  driven  to  the  mill. 

Rail  transport  is  gaining  in  favor  in  all  sections  of  the  country 
and  with  high  stumpage  values  will  become  the  preferred  form 
of  transport  except  where  conditions  are  especially  favorable  for 
motor  truck  transport  or  for  floating  and  rafting.  The  only 
region  in  which  their  use  is  not  extensive  is  in  the  New  England 
States  where  water  transportation  has  been  the  custom  for  years, 
due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  merchantable  species 
will  float.  The  region  also  is  traversed  by  numerous  streams 
and  trunk  lines  have  not  penetrated  the  forest  regions  to  any 
extent. 

Advantages  of  Railroad  Transportation 

(1)  Accessibility.  Railroads  have  made  large  areas  of  timber 
accessible  which  otherwise  could  not  be  logged  because  of  the 
lack  of  streams  for  floating  logs,  or  the  absence  of  suitable  manu- 


284  LOGGING 

facturing  sites  and  shipping  facilities  on  the  natural  water  out- 
lets. 

(2)  Independence  of  climatic  conditions.  Rail  transport  ren- 
ders a  logger  practically  free  from  climatic  influences  since  he 
is  not  dependent  on  a  snowfall  to  furnish  a  bottom  for  hauling, 
or  on  flood  waters  to  float  his  logs.  This  enables  him  to  operate 
throughout  the  year,  with  possible  short  interruptions  due  to 
heavy  rainfall  or  snowfall. 

(3)  Market  conditions.  The  use  of  railroad  transport  does 
not  force  the  manufacturer  to  anticipate  market  conditions 
months  in  advance,  because  logs  can  be  cut  and  hauled  to  the  mill 
on  short  notice  and  special  requirements  for  long  timbers  or  for 
a  heavy  cut  can  be  readily  met.  The  plant  can  be  closed  during 
dull  market  periods  without  carrying  on  hand  a  large  quantity  of 
logs  in  the  forest,  subject  to  damage  from  fire,  insects,  and  sap- 
stain.  The  operator  can  turn  over  his  money  at  frequent  in- 
tervals and  need  not  invest  a  large  sum  in  advance  in  logging 
expenses. 

(4)  Utilization  of  hardwoods.  The  logger  is  able  to  bring 
out  all  species.  This  reduces  logging  expense,  because  of  the 
heavier  stand  per  acre  secured. 

(5)  No  loss  of  logs  in  transport. 

(6)  Clean  logs.  Rail  transport  lands  the  logs  at  their  desti- 
nation free  from  gravel,  sand,  iron  and  other  foreign  matter.  A 
hardwood  manufacturer  operating  on  one  of  the  large  rivers  esti- 
mates that  clean  logs  can  be  manufactured  15  cents  per  thousand 
cheaper  because  of  the  saving  in  saws,  saw-filing  expense  and 
lost  time  on  the  part  of  sawmill  labor.  This  saving  is  very 
appreciable  in  large  plants.  The  value  of  some  hardwoods,  such 
as  basswood  for  cooperage  stock  and  birch  for  spool  stock,  is 
strongly  influenced  by  the  brightness  of  the  wood,  and  even 
though  such  species  can  be  floated  their  value  is  often  reduced 
by  exposure  to  weather  and  water. 

Railroads  for  logging  purposes  can  usually  be  constructed 
much  cheaper  than  trunk  roads  because  higher  grades  and  sharper 
curves  can  be  used  and  also  because  the  roadbed  need  not 
always  be  placed  in  first-class  condition  to  do  satisfactory  work. 
In  a  rough  region,  however,  the  initial  expense  is  great  and 
the  cost  may  be  prohibitive  if  many  miles  of  road  must  be  con- 
structed to  reach  a  tract.     Under  normal  circumstances,  rail- 


FOREST   RAILROADS  285 

roads  are  chiefly  adapted  to  large  operations  since  the  construc- 
tion charge  must  be  distributed  over  a  large  tonnage  if  the  cost 
per  thousand  board  feet  of  timber  handled  is  to  be  kept  within 
reasonable  limits. 

CHOICE    OF    GAUGE 

The  choice  of  a  narrow-  or  standard-gauge  road  for  logging 
operations  should  be  governed  by  the  size  of  the  operation,  the 
topography,  the  amount  of  capital  available  for  investment,  the 
initial  cost  of  construction  and  equipment  and  also  by  the  cost 
of  operation,  because  the  increased  construction  cost  of  a  stand- 
ard-gauge may  be  more  than  compensated  by  a  reduced  operating 
charge. 

Narrow-gauge  roads  can  be  constructed  cheaper  than  standard- 
gauge  because  (1)  the  width  of  cuts  and  fills  is  less;  (2)  sharper 
curves^  can  be  used  because  of  the  shorter  wheel-base  of 
locomotives  and  cars;  (3)  the  cost  of  track  laying  is  less  per  mile 
owing  to  the  use  of  lighter  rails  and  ties;  (4)  the  initial  expense 
for  rolling  stock  and  motive  power  is  not  so  great. 

There  is  little  difference  in  the  cost  of  trestles  and  other  timber 
work  for  narrow-  and  standard-gauge  roads.  A  narrow-gauge 
road  is  desirable  for  a  limited  output  in  a  rough  region  because 
the  cost  may  be  one-third  less  thaiTTEat  oF'a  standard-gauge. 
It  therefore  appeals  to  loggers  with  limited  funds.  It  is  also 
desirable  in  light  or  scattered  stands__vvhgxe-tbe^track  must  be 
movecTTrequently^  On  soft  bottom  the  traxik  is  easier  to  keep 
in  operating  condition  awing~~1:Trt!ieTighteFequipment  used  and 
the  smaller  loads  hauFed. 

Where  a  large  tonnage  is  handled,  standard-gauge  roads  are 
more  economical  to  operate  because  larger  locomotives  and  cars 
can  be  used  and  the  cost  of  operation  per  thousand  board  feet  for 
wages,  fuel,  oil  and  repairs  for  the  heavier  locomotives  and  cars 
will  be  less  because  of  increased  hauling  capacity. 

Standard-gauge  is  also  desirable  because  trunk-line  cars  may 
be  operated  over  the  logging  road.  This  is  a  great  advantage 
where  logs,  pulp  wood,  tanbark  and  other  forest  products  are 
to  be  shipped  to  outside  points,  since  cars  can  be  loaded  in  the 
forest  and  hauled  to  destination  without  reloading. 

1  Curves  as  high  as  50  degrees  have  been  negotiated  by  narrow-gauge  geared 
locomotives  but  a  lower  degree  is  desirable  for  efficient  work. 


286  LOGGING 

RIGHTS-OF-WAY 

The  right  of  loggers  to  build  railroads  across  the  lands  of  others 
is  not  recognized  by  the  courts  except  where  the  roads  have  been 
chartered  by  the  State.  In  the  latter  case  the  right  of  Eminent 
Domain  is  granted,  and  a  line  can  be  forced  across  foreign  hold- 
ings by  condemnation  proceedings  and  the  payment  of  just  com- 
pensation to  the  owner.^ 

Many  logging  roads  are  not  incorporated  because  the  route 
does  not  tap  a  section  in  which  any  tonnage,  other  than  that 
of  the  owners,  originates.  Further  the  incorporation  of  the 
road  subjects  it  to  regulations  governing  the  hours  of  labor  for 
train  crews,  use  of  air  brakes,  height  of  draw  bars  on  the  equip- 
ment, filing  of  tariffs,  and  the  submission  of  reports  to  the 
State  Railroad  Commission. 

Chartered  roads  must  be  prepared  to  handle  freight  and  pas- 
senger traffic,  and  many  logging  companies  do  not  feel  justi- 
fied in  maintaining  the  necessary  equipment  for  this  purpose, 
especially  since  the  handling  of  outside  traffic  at  times  interferes 
with  the  operation  of  logging  trains. 

Where  the  owner  of  a  non-chartered  road  desires  a  right-of- 
way  across  the  property  of  another  the  land  may  be  bought  at 
private  sale,  although  this  course  is  seldom  desirable  unless  the 
road  is  ultimately  to  become  a  "common  carrier,"  inasmuch  as  a 
narrow  strip  of  property  is  of  little  value  to  the  owner  and  is 
difficult  to  sell  at  the  conclusion  of  logging  operations.  The 
more  frequent  practice  is  to  lease  land  for  a  right-of-way  for  a 
period  sufficient  to  permit  the  removal  of  timber.  Such  leases 
can  usually  be  secured  on  terms  satisfactory  to  all  parties,  al- 
though exorbitant  rental  is  sometimes  demanded,  when  the 
topography  compels  the  location  of  the  road  within  restricted 
limits,  such  as  in  a  narrow  valley. 

When  timber  rights  are  purchased  without  the  fee  to  the  land, 
the  contract  of  sale  should  specify  that  the  purchaser  has  the 
right  to  construct  such  roads  as  are  necessary  to  secure  the 

1  In  the  case  of  Healy  Lumber  Co.  vs.  Morris,  33  Washington  490,  the 
Court  held  that  a  logging  company  performing  no  public  function  was  without 
power  to  condemn  a  way  for  a  logging  railroad,  notwithstanding  the  legislature 
had  purported  to  confer  on  it  that  power.  The  state  constitution  grants  the 
right  to  take  private  property  only  for  private  ways  of  necessity  and,  therefore, 
such  necessity  must  be  proved. 


FOREST  RAILROADS  287 

timber.  Even  if  such  a  stipulation  is  not  made,  some  courts^ 
have  ruled  that  a  sale,  or  grant  of  standing  trees  imphes  a  right 
of  access  and  the  use  of  the  land  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the 
timber  and  afterwards  removing  the  logs.  Unless  some  specific 
date  is  mentioned  on  which  these  rights  terminate,  the  buyer  is 
entitled  to  a  "reasonable  time"  for  removal  of  the  timber.  In 
case  of  litigation  the  length  of  time  covered  by  the  contract  is 
decided  by  the  courts  after  consideration  of  the  specific  case. 
The  use  of  a  strip  of  land  as  a  right-of-way  for  a  logging  railroad  by 
and  with  the  consent  of  the  owner  does  not  give  the  logger  the 
permanent  use  of  such  property  unless  there  has  been  a  specific 
grant  by  the  land  owner,  or  unless  the  road  bed  has  been  in  use 
for  a  period  long  enough  to  establish  a  legal  right  to  it  by  adverse 
possession.^ 

LOCATION 

The  location  of  the  main  line  of  a  logging  railroad  is  of  great 
importance,  for  the  engineer  must  preserve  a  proper  balance 
between  the  cost  of  construction  and  the  maintenance  and 
operating  charges.  He  must  choose  between  an  expensive  road- 
bed with  low  grades  and  easy  curves,  or  a  cheaper  roadbed  with 
increased  maintenance  and  operating  expenses. 

(1)  Roads  in  a  rolling  or  rough  region  usually  enter  the  tract 
at  the  lowest  point  and  follow  natural  drainage,  because  it  often 
affords  the  best  grade  out  of  the  region  and  the  operator  can 
bring  his  timber  to  the  main  line  on  a  down  grade.  Roadbeds 
along  natural  drainage  should  be  placed  above  high-water  mark 
when  possible,  although  on  roads  which  are  to  be  used  only 
for  a  short  period,  it  may  be  cheaper  to  build  near  the  stream  and 
suffer  a  few  washouts  rather  than  incur  a  very  heavy  construc- 
tion expense. 

(2)  The  shortest  possible  route  is  desirable,  but  it  is  better 
to  increase  the  length  of  line  if  heavy  cuts,  fills,  and  bridge  and 
trestle  construction  can  be  avoided. 

(3)  "Velocity"  grades  are  often  used  to  advantage  in  crossing 
"draws"  or  depressions  but  they  are  feasible  only  on  straight 

^  See  a  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Tennessee.  Carson  vs.  Three 
States  Lumber  Company  (Tenn.),  69  Southwestern  Reporter,  320.     1902. 

2  See  Brandon  vs.  Umpqua  Lumber  and  Timber  Co.  146  Pacific  Reporter 
46.     1915. 


288  LOGGING 

track,  for  it  is  dangerous  to  run  trains  at  high  speed  on  a  curved 
track  which  has  a  descending  grade.  In  addition  to  their  in- 
fluence on  the  hauhng  ability  of  a  locomotive,  steep  pitches 
are  a  disadvantage  on  a  road  because  the  track  tends  to  work 
towards  the  lower  levels  and  not  only  is  the  expense  of  main- 
tenance greater  than  for  a  fairly  level  road  but  also  the  danger 
of  wrecks  is  increased. 

(4)  Where  logging  railroads  must  cross  ridges  or  ascend  or 
descend  very  steep  grades  in  a  short  distance,  "switch  backs" 
are  preferable  to  doubling  back  with  a  curve  since  the  latter 
method  often  necessitates  a  heavier  construction  expense.  Switch 
backs  and  inclines  often  are  the  only  means  at  hand  for  securing 
timber  from  elevations  above  or  below  the  main  line. 

(5)  Grades  should  not  exceed  3  per  cent  and  curves  should 
not  exceed  T2degrees  on  roads  that  are  to  be  used  for  several 
years  and  over  which  a  large  amount  of  timber  is  to  be  hauled, 
although  in  a  rough  region  these  figures  are  often  increased  in 
practice. 

Location  in  a  region  without  marked  topographical  relief,  such 
as  the  flat  pineries  or  the  cypress  swamps  of  the  South,  presents 
no  special  difficulties.  The  main  object  is  to  bring  the  railroad 
to  the  timber  by  the  shortest  and  cheapest  route.  The  con- 
struction cost  is  low  on  dry  lands  in  these  regions,  because  only 
limited  quantities  of  material,  chiefly  earth,  must  be  moved  to 
make  the  roadbed.  Where  swamps  are  crossed  piling  is  used 
and  numerous  bridges  or  trestles  may  be  required,  but  even  here 
the  cost  per  mile  is  less  than  the  average  in  a  mountainous  region. 

In  the  flat  and  gently  rolling  regions  of  the  South  the  main 
lines  often  are  located  by  the  woods  foreman,  although  in  many 
cases,  engineers  could  be  employed  to  advantage.  In  a  rolling 
or  rough  country,  location  presents  difficult  problems,  because 
roads  must  be  confined  chiefly  to  natural  drainage  and  often  the 
only  means  of  access  to  timber  is  over  a  route  requiring  heavy  cuts 
and  fills  and  expensive  bridge  and  trestle  construction.  The  loca- 
tion of  logging  railroads  in  a  rough  region  should  be  done  by  a 
location  engineer  who  is  an  expert  logger.  Good  railroad  engineers 
without  logging  experience  are  usually  a  failure  at  logging  rail- 
road work  because  they  are  not  able  to  subordinate  some  of  their 
ideals  regarding  standard  railroad  construction  to  the  demands 
of  practical  logging.     Some  companies  have  sufficient  work  to 


FOREST  RAILROADS  289 

furnish  continuous  employment  for  logging  engineers  while  others 
secure  their  services  only  when  needed. 

Spur  lines  are  located  with  less  care  than  the  main  lines  for 
they  are  shorter  and  of  cheaper  construction,  since  they  are 
to  be  used  only  for  a  brief  period  and  a  limited  amount  of  timber 
is  to  come  out  over  them.  They  should  follow  natural  drainage 
in  order  to  provide  a  down-haul  for  animal  logging,  but  if  power 
skidders  are  used  the  roads  may  be  placed  on  high  ground  and 
the  logs  dragged  up  grade,  as  it  is  often  cheaper  to  construct 
and  maintain  a  road  on  the  higher  ground,  the  skidding  machine 
will  bring  logs  up  grade  as  easily  as  down,  and  the  logs  do  not 
acquire  momentum  and  foul  the  cable,  or  catch  so  readily  behind 
stumps  or  debris. 

In  fairly  level  regions,  where  animals  are  used  for  logging, 
spurs  are  preferably  located  so  that  the  maximum  haul  from  any 
part  of  the  operation  will  not  exceed  f  of  a  mile,  except  for  small 
isolated  tracts,  which  do  not  warrant  the  expense  of  building  a 
railroad  to  them.  Where  a  snaking  system  is  used  and  the  aim 
is  to  log  all  parts  of  the  tract  by  this  system,  spurs  should  be  placed 
approximately  parallel  to  each  other  and  from  1200  to  1600  feet 
apart,  for  the  maximum  efficient  radius  of  the  machine  does  not 
exceed  800  feet.  In  cypress  and  other  forests  where  the  area  is 
logged  by  the  cableway  system,  the  spurs  are  placed  parallel  and 
from  1200  to  1400  feet  apart.  On  the  West  Coast,  overhead 
systems  often  operate  for  distances  of  from  1000  to  1200  feet 
from  either  side  of  the  railroad.  In  mountainous  sections  spur 
roads  follow  main  and  secondary  drainage.  Distances  greater 
than  3000  feet  are  not  considered  desirable  for  overhead  skidding 
systems  although  the  spans  may  be  as  long  as  4000  feet,  when 
the  stand  is  light  or  railroad  construction  costs  are  too  high  for 
the  amount  of  timber  secured.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  some  opera- 
tors build  their  spur  roads  to  the  yarding  engines.  Where  spur 
construction  is  costly  the  logs  may  be  brought  to  the  main  line 
by  road  engines,  swing  donkeys,  slides  or  flumes.  In  the  Appala- 
chian region  spur  construction  is  limited,  and  railroads  are  con- 
fined to  the  larger  branches  of  the  streams. 

The  grades  and  curves  permissible  on  spurs  are  greater  than 
on  main  lines  because  a  slow  speed  is  maintained,  and  lighter 
motive  power  is  used.  For  the  sake  of  efficiency  and  safety  it 
is  always  desirable  to  keep  grades  and  curves  as  low  as  possible, 


290  LOGGING 

although  short  spurs  may  have  ascending  grades  as  high  as  6 
per  cent  for  loaded  cars,  and  from  8  to  10  per  cent  for  empty  ones, 
and  curves  as  high  as  40  degrees,  although  they  should  not  exceed 
15  degrees  under  average  conditions. 

Geared  locomotives,  only,  are  suitable  for  steep  grades  and 
sharp  curves.  The  short  wheel  base  permits  the  locomotive  to 
make  sharp  turns,  and  increased  power  is  secured  through  the 
gearing.  However,  on  steep  grades  and  sharp  curves  a  geared 
locomotive  can  haul  only  a  few  cars  at  one  time. 

Methods  of  Location.  —  Main  line  location  is  preceded  by  re- 
connaissance work  which  enables  the  engineer  or  logger  to  de- 
termine the  problems  which  confront  him  and  to  select  one  or 
more  feasible  routes.  In  this  work  a  topographic  map  is  very 
helpful  and  is  now  considered  an  essential  part  of  the  equipment 
of  an  operator  in  a  rolling  or  rough  region.  Such  maps  may  be 
prepared  in  connection  with  a  timber  cruise,  but  if  not  available 
previous  to  railroad  location  they  are  prepared  in  connection  with 
reconnaissance.  Contour  intervals  varying  from  10  to  50  feet 
are  used  depending  on  the  accuracy  required  and  the  roughness 
of  the  country.  Relative  differences  in  elevation  are  of  more 
importance  than  absolute  differences,  because  the  logger  is  chiefly 
interested  in  the  location  and  height  of  ridges,  degree  of  slope, 
width  of  valley  bottoms,  size  and  character  of  streams,  and  like 
factors  which  have  an  influence  on  cheap  railroad  construction. 
There  is  no  standard  method  in  use  by  engineers  for  collecting 
data  for  the  preparation  of  topographic  maps.  The  aneroid 
barometer,  hand  level  and  pocket  compass  may  be  the  only 
instruments  used,  although  control  points  both  for  distance  and 
elevation  may  be  established  by  chained  compass  or  transit  lines 
and  a  line  of  "Y"  levels  run  along  section  or  other  lines.  One 
method  used  by  a  western  logging  engineer  on  his  reconnaissance 
survey,  preliminary  to  location,  is  to  run  out  and  blaze  all  section 
lines;  determine  distances  by  pacing,  which  are  checked  on  quarter- 
section  and  section  corners;  and  secure  elevations  by  means  of 
an  aneroid  barometer.  A  rough  topographic  map  is  prepared 
from  this  data  and  furnishes  a  basis  for  the  preliminary  location. 

Having  roughly  determined  the  route  of  the  road,  the  pre- 
liminary location  follows.  The  engineer  is  aided  in  this  work  by 
one  or  two  rod  men  and  two  or  more  axmen,  depending  on  the 
density  of  brush  along  the  route.     When  an  expensive  road  is  to 


FOREST  RAILROADS  291 

be  built,  engineers  recommend  the  use  of  a  transit  in  preliminary- 
work,  because  of  the  accuracy  demanded  in  final  results.  Some 
use  a  railroad  compass  and  a  hand  level  of  the  Abney  type  both 
for  main  lines  and  spurs.  In  a  fairly  level  country  the  railroad 
compass  will  meet  all  needs,  in  fact  some  find  a  small  staff  com- 
pass ample. 

The  engineer,  having  traveled  over  the  proposed  route  one  or 
more  times  and  knowing  the  problems  to  be  solved,  locates  a  line 
of  tangents  and  sets  stakes  marked  with  the  station  number,  at 
100-foot  intervals  along  the  right-of-way.  As  the  line  pro- 
gresses, the  engineer,  by  trial,  selects  the  points  which  will  keep 
his  grades  and  curves  within  the  limits  set  for  the  line.  Several 
trial  lines  may  be  necessary  to  secure  a  satisfactory  grade. 

On  spur  lines  in  a  rough  region  and  on  main  lines  in  a  fairly 
level  region,  the  preliminary  survey  is  dispensed  with.  A  rail- 
road compass  or  a  box  compass  is  often  used  in  lieu  of  a  transit, 
and  in  many  sections  the  woods  foreman  or  superintendent 
replaces  the  engineer. 

A  common  method  in  the  pineries  of  the  South  is  to  locate  a 
line  of  tangents  by  the  use  of  three  6-foot  straight  pickets,  along 
which  the  locator  sights,  placing  center  stakes  at  100-foot  in- 
tervals. 

The  final  location  of  the  line  of  tangents  is  followed  by  the 
location  of  curves.  Loggers  have  a  number  of  rule-of- thumb 
methods  of  locating  curves,  which,  although  somewhat  inaccurate, 
are  satisfactory  for  railroads  where  a  high  degree  of  engineering 
ability  is  not  demanded.  Many  who  use  rule-of-thumb  methods 
determine  the  deflection  angle  by  eye  and  lay'  off  trial  curves, 
persisting  until  they  find  one  which  will  connect  their  two  tan- 
gents. Several  methods  are  in  general  use  by  logging  engineers 
for  laying  out  curves  on  logging  roads,  among  them  the  tangent- 
offset  method;  offsets  from  chords  produced,  the  field  man  using 
a  table  of  offsets  for  a  given  degree  of  curvature;  by  computing 
in  the  office  from  a  plotted  traverse  the  offsets  from  stations  on 
a  line  of  tangents  followed  by  field  location;  and  by  the  use  of 
a  transit  or  compass  to  lay  off  stations  on  a  curve  by  means  of 
deflection  angles. 

On  main  line  work  in  a  rough  region,  the  location  survey  is 
followed  by  a  line  of  levels  which  furnish  data  for  a  profile  map 
on  which  the  "elevation  of  grade"  is  shown.     This  is  preliminary 


292  LOGGING 

to  making  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  moving  earth  and  rock. 
The  cubic  yardage  is  computed  from  cross  sections^  taken  along 
the  proposed  grade  at  each  station  on  level  or  fairly  level  ground, 
and  at  every  point  where  there  is  a  decided  change  in  the  con- 
figuration of  the  surface. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   TO    CHAPTER   XVII 

Clark,  E.  T.:    Pacific  Coast  Logging.     West  Coast  Lumberman,  May  1, 

1920,  pp.  81  to  92. 
Ellis,  L.  R.  :    Necessity  for  an  Accurate  Topographic  Map  in  Logging 

Operations.     Timberman,  July,  1911,  pp.  49-53. 
Henry,  H.  P.:    Advantages  of  Topographic  Surveys  and  Logging  Plans. 

The  Tunberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  65-67. 
Peed,  W.  W.:    Necessity  for  the  Logging  Engineer  in  Modern  Logging 

Operations.     The  Tunberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  47-49. 
Rankin,  R.  L.  :    Practical  Topographical  Surveys  for  Building  Logging 

Roads.     The  Timberman,  March,  1912,  p.  27. 
Van  Orsdel,  John  P. :   How  to  Obtain  the  Highest  Practical  EflBciency  in 

Woods  Operations.     The  Timberman,  September,  1910,  pp.  48-51. 
Van  Orsdel,  John  P.:    Topographic  Survey  and  its  Economic  Value  in 

Logging  Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  p.  64. 
Wood,  A.  B. :  Accurate  Topographic  Map  is  a  Good  Investment  in  Logging 

Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  p.  67. 

1  See  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Co.,  New  York,  1912,  pp.  175-182.  "Highway  Construction,"  by  Austin 
T.  Byrne.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1902,  pp.  447-454.  "Theory  and 
Practice  of  Surveying,"  by  J.  B.  Johnson.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New 
York,  1901,  pp.  438-471. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION 

The  construction  of  the  roadbed  for  a  logging  railroad  usually 
precedes  logging  by  a  few  weeks,  although  it  may  be  several 
months  or  a  year  in  advance  which  is  an  advantage  because  the 
roadbed  has  an  opportunity  to  settle  before  the  steel  is  laid  and 
the  road  operated.  This  gives  a  more  stable  track  and  one  that 
is  cheaper  to  maintain.  In  regions  subject  to  heavy  rainfall 
and  where  the  earth  washes  badly,  this  practice  is  not  desirable 
since  the  roadbed  will  suffer  through  erosion. 

CLEARING    THE    RIGHT-OF-WAY 

Previous  to  starting  the  grading  of  the  right-of-way,  it  is 
necessary  to  cut  and  remove  the  standing  timber,  brush  and 
stumps  which  will  intefere  with  the  roadbed.  This  work  often  is 
done  by  contract  at  a  stated  price  per  acre,  with  or  without  an 
additional  pajonent  for  all  merchantable  saw  logs  cut. 

Main  line  rights-of-way  are  generally  cut  100  feet  wide  in  order 
to  prevent  the  track  from  being  covered  with  "down  timber" 
during  wind  storms.  On  spur  roads  the  right-of-way  is  from  18 
to  50  feet  wide.  In  the  South,  however,  rights-of-way  for  spurs 
often  are  made  120  feet  wide  in  order  to  provide  skidway  space 
on  each  side  of  the  track.  The  right-of-way  crew  fells  the  timber, 
removes  the  stumps  from  the  roadbed,  if  necessary,  and  cuts 
the  brush  from  the  skidway  site.  The  timber  adjacent  to  the 
roadbed  usually  is  not  felled  until  the  surrounding  area  is  logged, 
because  insects  seriously  damage  felled  timber  that  remains  in 
the  forest  during  the  warm  months.  When  the  skidway  sites 
are  cleared  by  the  skidding  crew  the  cost  is  greater  than  when  it 
is  done  by  a  special  crew  both  because  of  the  enforced  idleness 
of  the  teams  and  the  low  efficiency  of  teamsters  when  performing 
swamping  work  which  is  usually  distasteful  to  them. 

The  timber  cut  from  a  right-of-way  may    be  used  for  saw 

logs,  culverts,  trestles,  bridges,  corduroy  and  for  filling  in  low 

places  to  reduce  the  amount  of  earth  required  for  fills.     Material 

of  merchantable  value  both  from  green  and  "  dead-and-down " 

293 


294  LOGGING 

timber  is  cut  into  saw  logs  and  piled  on  skidways  along  the  right- 
of-way  outside  of  the  grade  line. 

On  main  lines  and  spurs  all  stumps  should  be  removed  from 
the  roadbed  unless  they  are  on  the  site  of  a  proposed  fill  and  will 
be  covered  with  at  least  1  foot  of  earth;  or  so  located  that  they 
will  not  furnish  a  bearing  for  any  part  of  the  track;  or  the 
character  of  the  ground  is  such  that  the  removal  of  the  stump 
during  wet  weather  will  cause  a  soft  spot  which  cannot  be  kept 
up  during  the  rainy  period. 

Where  the  skimps  are  to  be  covered  with  earth  they  are  cut 
off  near  the  ground.  Those  on  the  right-of-way  outside  of  the 
roadbed  may  be  cut  at  any  convenient  height  that  will  not  in- 
terfere with  the  passage  of  locomotives,  log  cars,  skidders  or  other 
equipment.  Stumps  may  be  removed  by  blasting  with  powder 
or  dynamite,  by  grubbing  or  by  burning.  Blasting  often  is  the 
cheapest  method,  but  it  disturbs  the  earth  for  some  distance 
around  the  stump.  The  portions  of  the  roadbed  from  which 
stumps  have  been  removed  by  blasting  often  remain  soft  for 
months  afterward  and  during  wet  weather  may  be  difficut  to 
keep  in  proper  condition.  As  a  rule,  southern  pine  stumps  from 
24  to  30  inches  in  diameter  will  require  one  day's  labor  for  grubbing. 
Small-  and  medium-sized  trees  can  best  be  removed  by  cutting  all 
roots  from  3  to  4  feet  from  the  base  of  the  tree  and  allowing  the 
weight  of  the  crown  and  bole  to  aid  in  pulling  out  the  stump. 

The  construction  of  the  roadbed  follows  the  felling  of  the 
timber  and  the  removal  of  stumps.  This  covers  the  move- 
ment of  earth  and  rock  for  cuts  and  fills,  the  construction  of 
trestles,  culverts,  cribbing  and  other  timber  structures. 

FILLS   AND    CUTS 

Fills  on  a  logging  road  should  be  12  or  14  feet  wide  on  top  for 
a  standard-gauge  road  and  10  or  12  feet  wide  for  a  narrow-gauge. 
The  standard  slope  for  an  earthwork  fill  is  1^  :  1.^  When  the 
fill  is  made  from  solid  rock,  a  1  :  1  slope  may  be  ample. 

^  The  angle  of  repose  or  slope  that  a  face  of  earth  makes  with  the  horizon- 
tal when  not  subjected  to  the  elements  is  as  follows: 

Compact  earth ,50  degrees  or  f  to  1 

Clay,  well  drained 45  degrees  or  1  to  1 

Gravel 40  degrees  or  1  ^  to  1 

Dry  sand 38  degrees  or  1  ^  to  1 

Wet  sand 22  degrees  or  2^  to  1 

Vegetable  earth  (loam) 28  degrees  or  If  to  1 

Wet  clay 16  degrees  or  3  to  1 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 


295 


In  cuts  the  roadbed  must  be  wide  enough  to  give  room  for  a 
drainage  ditch  on  either  side.  These  will  requires  about  3  addi- 
tional feet  each,  and  the  cut  should  be  about  16  feet  at  the  base. 
They  must  be  wide  enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  any  equip- 
ment that  may  be  taken  over  the  road.  In  earth  cuts  the  ratio 
of  slope  is  1^  :  1  and  in  solid  rock  cuts  the  walls  are  perpendicular 
or  nearly  so. 

Main  lines  are  graded  up  carefully,  and  suitable  ditches  main- 
tained.    Even  on  level  sections  it  is  desirable  to  elevate  the 


Fig.  99.  —  Two  Methods  of  constructing  a  Grade  for  a  Logging  Railroad. 
a,  main  line  spur,  b,  secondary  spur.  The  ditch  is  cut  to  the  dotted  line 
when  the  track  is  surfaced. 


track  and  put  in  ditches,  because  of  the  cheaper  cost  of  main- 
tenance during  wet  weather. 

Types  of  main  line  spur  tracks  used  in  southern  Arkansas 
are  shown  in  Fig.  99.  The  earth  from  the  ditches  is  sufficient 
for  ballasting  the  ties  and  the  grade  costs  but  little  except  for 
the  ditches. 

On  spurs  a  minimum  of  fill  and  cut  work  is  done  and  ditching 
is  not  resorted  to  unless  absolutely  necessary. 

When  fills  of  2  or  more  feet  are  to.be  made  on  spur  roads,  it 
is  a  common  practice  to  fill  the  bed  of  the  grade  with  logs,  if 
nonmerchantable  timber  is  close  at  hand,  and  to  place  a  cover  of 
earth  over  them  to  give  a  bearing  for  the  ties.  This  practice 
cheapens  the  cost  of  construction,  especially  when  earth  for  a 


296  LOGGING 

fill  must  be  taken  from  a  "borrow"  pit.  This  type  of  roadbed 
will  last  for  at  least  one  year. 

The  movement  of  earth  and  rock  in  the  construction  of  cuts 
and  fills  is  most  frequently  done  by  contract.  The  unit  on  which 
payment  is  based  is  the  cubic  yard,  the  material  being  measured 
"in  place,"  that  is,  in  the  natural  bank  before  it  has  been  dis- 
turbed. It  is  customary  to  classify  the  material  to  be  moved 
and  to  regulate  the  prices  accordingly.  The  classification  and 
quantity  of  material  moved  are  determined  by  the  supervising 
engineer. 

The  following  standard  classification  is  in  extensive  use : 

(1)  Earth.  —  Loam,  sand,  gravel  or  clay.  Material  that  can 
be  handled  with  a  pick  and  shovel,  or  that  can  be  plowed  readily. 

(2)  Hardpan.  —  Very  dense  clays  and  gravels,  cemented  with 
iron  oxide.  Soft  shales  that  are  easily  worked  may  also  be 
included. 

(3)  Loose  Rock.  —  Shales  and  other  rock  that  can  be  quarried 
without  blasting,  although  blasting  may  be  resorted  to  occa- 
sionally. 

(4)  Solid  Rock.  —  Material   requiring   blasting  for  removal. 
The  contract  price  per  cubic  yard  for  the  removal  of  earth 

or  rock  usually  includes  excavating,  hauling,  and  placing  the 
material  in  a  fill  or  a  waste  pit.  It  is  not  customary  to  pay  for 
making  a  cut  and  also  to  pay  for  a  fill  made  from  the  same  ma- 
terial; in  other  words,  payment  for  a  given  cubic  yard  is  made 
but  once.  Grading  contracts  may  have  an  "overhaul"  clause 
which  provides  that  for  all  earth  hauled  more  than  a  specified 
distance  ("free  haul"),  the  contractor  shall  be  paid  a  stated 
sum  per  cubic  yard  for  each  100  feet  of  overhaul.  On  logging 
operations  the  length  of  free  haul  ranges  from  100  to  500 
feet. 

The  price  paid  for  moving  material  varies  greatly  in  different 
regions  and  is  influenced  by  the  length  of  haul,  the  kind  of  ma- 
terial moved,  the  character  of  classification,  the  degree  of  ac- 
curacy used  in  actual  classification  and  the  season  of  the  year; 
the  cost  of  winter  work  being  about  25  per  cent  higher  than  that 
of  work  done  during  the  summer. 

The  average  work  on  logging  roads  except  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
usually  presents  no  special  problems  and  can  be  performed  with 
simple   equipment   which   does   not   require   a   heavy   financial 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  297 

outlay.  Loggers  are  able,  therefore,  to  contract  with  local  men 
on  favorable  terms. 

MOVEMENT   OF   EARTH^ 

The  movement  of  earth  for  road  construction,  railroad  grades 
and  trails  may  be  performed  in  various  ways  among  which  the 
following  are  in  general  use: 

(1)  With  pick  and  shovel,  the  earth  being  loosened  by  the 
pick  and  then  thrown  directly  out  of  the  cut. 

(2)  Loosening  by  pick  or  plow  and  transport  on  wheel- 
barrows, two-wheeled  dump  carts  or  dump  wagons. 

(3)  Loosening  by  plow  or  by  dynamite  and  transport  on 
drag  scrapers,  wheeled  scrapers  or  dump  cars  with  horse  draft. 

(4)  Steam  shovel,  either  casting  the  dirt  on  or  off  the  grade  or 
placing  it  in  dump  or  flat  cars  for  transportation  away  from  the 
site. 

(5)  Power  drag  scraper,  moving  material  from  cuts  or  to  fills. 
The  first  three  methods  are  used  by  owners  of  comparatively 

simple  and  inexpensive  outfits.  Steam  shovels  and  power  drag 
scrapers  are  used  chiefly  in  the  West  where  a  large  amount  of 
earth  and  rock  often  must  be  moved  in  making  a  logging  railroad 
grade. 

Plowing.  —  Contractors  usually  assume  that  a  team  and  driver, 
with  a  helper  to  hold  the  plow  can  loosen  25  cubic  yards  of  fairly 
tough  clay,  35  cubic  yards  of  gravelly  loam,  or  50  cubic  yards  of 

1  Earth  of  various  kinds  increases  in  bulk  when  disturbed  for  removal,  as 
shown  in  the  following  table : 


Character  of  material 


Earth,  freshly  loosened 

Clean  sand  and  gravel 

Loam,  loamy  sand  and  gravel 

Dense  clay,  dense  mixtures  of  gravel  and  clay. 
Unusually  dense  gravel  and  clay  banks 


Increase  in 

bulk 

Per  cent. 

14  to  50 

14  to  15 

20 

33  to  50 

50 

Shrinkage  in  volume  of  embankments  is  dependent  on  the  method  used  to 
compact  them.  Loose  earth  with  rainfall  as  the  only  compacting  element 
will  be  about  8  per  cent  above  normal  at  the  expiration  of  a  year.  Earth 
compacted  with  two- wheeled  carts  or  scrapers  occupies  from  5  to  10  per  cent 
less  space  than  it  did  "in  place"  and  wUl  shrink  sUghtly  more  during  the 
next  few  years. 


298 


LOGGING 


loam,  per  hour,  A  pick-pointed  plow  drawn  by  four  or  six 
horses  and  with  two  men  riding  the  plow  beam,  is  required  for 
breaking  up  tough  clay  or  hardpan,  the  usual  rate  being  from  15 
to  20  cubic  yards  per  hour.  Thirty-five  cubic  yards  of  ''average 
earth"  per  hour  is  considered  satisfactory  work.^ 

Pick  Work.  —  The  pick  is  used  only  for  light  work  and  in 
confined  places.  In  one  hour  a  man  will  loosen  from  1.6  to  2.3 
cubic  yards  of  earth,  from  0.7  to  1.1  cubic  yards  of  gravel,  or 
0.9  cubic  yards  of  hardpan.^ 

Picking  and  Shoveling.  —  Pick-loosened  earth  is  nearly  always 
handled  with  a  shovel.  This  method  of  moving  earth  is  of 
importance  in  forest  work  because  most  light  railroad  grades  are 
constructed  in  this  manner,  and  it  is  also  used  in  trail  building. 

The  following  table'  shows  the  average  amount  of  cubic  yardage 
picked  and  shoveled  by  one  man  per  hour. 


Hardpan  (clay  and  gravel) 

Common  earth 

Hardpan 

Clay  (stiff) 

Clay 

Sand 

Sandy  soil 

Clayey  earth 

Clay,  fairly  tough 

Sandy  soil,  frozen 

Gravel  or  clay 

Earth 


Capacity  per 
man  per  hour 


Cubic  yards. 

0.4 

0.8-1.2 

0.33 

0.85 

1.00 

1.25 

0.8-1.2 

1.3 

0.9 

0.75 

0.7-0.8 

1.1-1.2 


Cost  per  cubic 
yard' 


Cents. 

37i 

45^ 
17^ 
15 
12 

19-12i 
12 
17 
20 
20 

13-14 


Authority 


M.  Ancelin 
Cole 


Gillette 


Billings 
Hodgson 


1  Wages  15  cents  per  hour. 

The  hourly  output  per  man  shoveling  average  soil  is  1.4  cubic 
yards,  but  this  may  be  increased  to  2  cubic  yards  under  efficient 
supervision. 

With  Dynamite.  —  A  logging  operator  in  Mississippi  describes' 
a  method  of  making  cuts  in  gumbo  5  feet  or  less  in  depth  when 
the  earth  is  to  be  "wasted."  The  reported  cost  was  50  per  cent 
less  than  with  the  usual  methods  of  moving  earth. 

Holes  of  the  required  depth  and  20  inches  apart  were  made 

1  The  data  on  output  are  taken  from  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  H.  P. 
Gillette.     McGraw  Hill  Book  Company,  New  York,  1912. 

2  See  American  Lumberman,  July  15,  1911,  p.  50. 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION 


299 


with  a  round,  sharpened  bar.  The  outside  row  of  holes  had  a 
degree  of  slant  that  would  produce  a  cut  with  sides  of  the  desired 
slope.  After  covering  the  site  of  the  proposed  cut  with  holes, 
they  were  loaded  with  60  per  cent  dynamite.  The  center  holes 
were  loaded  heavier  than  the  others  and  were  primed  for  electric 
firing.  The  explosion  of  the  central  charges  fired  the  others. 
The  length  of  cut  blasted  at  one  time  did  not  exceed  200  feet. 
A  large  amount  of  the  earth  was  thrown  entirely  out  of  the  cut 
and  the  remainder  was  handled  readily  with  a  drag  scraper.  In 
tight  wet  earth  one  ton  of  60  per  cent  dynamite  will  loosen  earth 
for  1600  linear  feet,  where  the  maximum  cut  is  5  feet. 

Wheelbarrows.  —  Barrows  are  not  profitable  for  moving  earth 
except  on  short  hauls,  for  stony  soil,  and  in  places  unfavorable 
for  the  use  of  horses.  The  average  load  on  level  runs  is  approxi- 
mately 250  pounds  or  ^V  o^  ^  cubic  yard  of  earth,  and  on  fairly 
steep  grades  yV  of  a  cubic  yard,  "place  measure." 

The  average  amounts  moved,  per  barrow,  on  a  level  in  ten 
hours  and  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  picking,  shoveling  and 
moving,  when  wages  are  15  cents  per  hour,  are  as  follows:^ 


Distance 

Quantity 

Cost  per  cubic 
>ard 

Feet 
100 

75 
50 
25 

Cubic  yards 

10.5 
11.1 
11.8 
12.5 

Cents 
22.50 
21.25 
20.00 
18.75 

Tivo-wheeled  Dump  Carts.  —  These  are  used  for  transporting 
material  for  distances  varying  from  75  to  500  feet,  and  are  es- 
pecially serviceable  on  short  hauls  and  in  narrow  cuts. 

The  average  load  of  dump  carts  on  level  roads  is  0.37  cubic 
yards,  and  on  steep  ascents  0.25  cubic  yards,  "place  measure." 

On  short  hauls  one  driver  attends  two  carts,  leading  one  to 
the  dump  while  the  other  is  being  loaded.  On  long  hauls  he 
may  handle  two  carts  by  taking  both  at  one  time.  The  carts 
are  loaded  at  the  pit  by  shovelmen. 

When  wages  are  15  cents,  and  horse  hire  10  cents  per  hour 
the  average  day's  work  on  level  ground  for  a  one-horse  cart  of 

1  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  datn 
contained  in  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette. 


300 


LOGGING 


f-cubic  yard  capacity,  and  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  plowing, 
shoveling  and  hauling  average  earth  are  as  follows  •} 


Distance 

Quantity 

Cost  per  cubic 
yard 

Feet 

100 
200 
300 
400 

Cubic  yards 

40.0 
33.3 

28.5 
25.0 

Cents 

20.25 
21.50 
22.75 
24.00 

Dump  Wagons.  —  When  a  wagon  is  used,  a  flat-bottom,  two- 
horse  type  is  preferred,  which  usually  has  the  following  capacity: 


Character  of  road 

Capacity 

Very  poor  earth  road 

Cubic  yards 
0.8 

1.0 
1.6 

Poor  earth  road 

Good  hard  earth  road 

A  team  will  travel  20  miles  per  day  on  fairly  hard  earth  roads, 
that  is,  10  miles  loaded  and  10  miles  without  a  load.  On  poor 
roads  and  soft  ground  15  miles  is  the  maximum  distance.  These 
rates  of  travel  include  occasional  stops  for  rests. 

When  wages  are  15  cents  and  horse  hire  10  cents  per  hour, 
the  cost  per  cubic  yard,  and  the  average  amounts  of  earth  moved 
daily  are  as  follows:* 


Distance 

Quantity 

Cost  per  cubic 
yard 

Feet 

Cubic  yards 

Cents 

300 

75 

20.1 

400 

20.8 

500 

21.5 

600 

22.2 

800 

50 

23.6 

1000 

34 

25.0 

2000 

26 

32.0 

3000 

39.0 

4000 

46.0 

5000 

53.0 

^  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  data 
contained  in  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 


301 


Drag  Scrapers.  —  A  drag  scraper  is  a  steel  scoop  used  for 
moving  eartii  for  short  distances.  It  is  the  preferable  form  for 
stony  ground  and  for  soils  filled  with  roots.  It  is  drawn  by  two 
horses. 

The  No.  2  scraper,  weighing  about  100  pounds,  is  the  one 
commonly  used.  Its  actual  capacity,  "place  measure,"  is  -^  of 
a  cubic  yard  of  tough  clay;  \  cubic  yard  of  gravel;  or  \  cubic 
yard  of  loam. 

Drag  scrapers  work  in  units  of  three  on  short  hauls,  the  teams 
traveling  about  50  feet  apart  in  an  ellipse.  They  are  loaded 
by  an  extra  man  as  they  pass  the  pit  and  are  dumped  by  the 
teamsters.  On  a  50-foot  haul  the  average  ten-hour  output  for 
a  drag  scraper  is  62  cul)ic  yards  of  earth  and  gravel,  and  40  cubic 
yards  of  stiff  clay.  Earth  for  scraper  work  is  loosened  with  a 
plow  or  by  dynamite. 

Wheeled  Scrapers.  —  The  wheeled  scraper  has  a  steel  scoop 
hung  low  between  two  wheels  The  following  sizes  are  in 
common  use: 

Number  1  wheelers  are  used  for  short  hauls  and  steep  rises 
and  should  replace  drag  scrapers  under  these  conditions  except 
where  the  soil  is  rocky  or  full  of  roots.  Snatch  teams  are  re- 
quired for  loading  No.  2  and  larger  scrapers,  and  even  then  it  is 
impossible  to  fill  the  bowl  in  tough  clay.  Shovels  must  be  used 
for  this  purpose. 


Weight 

Actual  capacity,' 
"  place  measure." 

No   1 

Pounds 

340  to  450 

475  to  500 

575 

625  to  800 

Cubic  yards 

i 

No  2 

No.  2i 

No  3 

'  When  the  bowl  is  level  full  of  earth. 

When  wages  are  15  cents  and  horse  hire  10  cents  per  hour  tne 
cost  per  cubic  yard  and  the  amount  of  earth  moved  daily  with  a 
No.  1  scraper  is  approximately  as  follows:^ 

1  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  data 
contained  in  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette. 


302 


LOGGING 


Distance 

Quantity 

Cost  per  cubic 
yard 

Feet 

Cubic  yards 

Cents 

100 

4S.0 

8.75 

200 

34.0 

11.50 

300 

26.6 

14.25 

400 

22.0 

17.00 

GOO 

16.0 

22.50 

Cars  with  Animal  Draft.  —  Horse-drawn  dump  cars,  ranging 
in  capacity  from  1  to  3  cubic  yards,  may  be  advantageously 
employed  where  large  quantities  of  earth  are  to  be  moved  for  a 
distance  of  several  hundred  feet.  They  are  generally  run  on 
16  or  20-pound  steel  rails,  with  6-  by  6-inch  by  5-foot  unballasted 
ties  spaced  about  4  feet,  center  to  center.  The  cost  of  laying 
such  a  track  averages  $100  per  mile,  exclusive  of  the  value  of 
the  material, 

A  dump  car  with  a  capacity  of  2  cubic  yards  weighs  about 
1  ton  and  holds  about  5400  pounds  of  earth.  A  horse  can  pull 
a  loaded  car  on  a  level  all  day,  and  can  go  up  4  per  cent  grades 
occasionally,  if  frequent  rests  are  given.  The  hauling  ability 
of  heavy  horses  pulling  cars  up  different  grades  is  approximately 
as  follows : 


Grade 

One  horse 

Two  horses 

Level 

1  per  cent.  .  . 

2  per  cent 

3  per  cent 

4  per  cent 

Cubic  yards 

2.00 
1.10 
0.64 
0.37 
0.18 

Cubic  yards 

5.0 
3.0 
2.0 
1.5 
0.75  to  1.10 

When  wages  are  15  cents  and  horse  hire  10  cents  per  hour  a 
2-cubic-yard  dump  car  drawn  by  one  horse  will  move  approxi- 
mately the  following  yardage  daily : 


Distance 

Quantity 

Cost  per  cubic 
jard 

Feet 

1000 
2000 
3000 
4000 

Cubic  yards 

85  to  90 
60  to  65 
35  to  40 
20  to  25 

Cents 

0.17 
0.18 
0.19 
0.20 

RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  303 

The  cars  are  loaded  by  shovelers,  each  handling  from  15  to 
18  cubic  yards  daily.^ 

Steam  Shovels.  —  Several  types  are  used  on  logging  railroad 
work  where  deep  cuts  or  high  fills  are  to  be  made  or  heavy  ditch- 
ing done.  When  a  large  quantity  of  earth  is  to  be  moved  and  the 
work  is  more  or  less  continuous  the  standard  swinging  type  of 
shovel  with  a  1^-cubic  yard  bucket  is  preferred.  The  shovel 
with  a  self-propelling  mechanism,  may  be  mounted  on  trucks,  for 
use  on  rails,  or  on  wheels.  This  type  of  shovel  is  best  adapted 
to  moving  dirt  and  broken  rock,  although  sometimes  it  is  used 
for  removing  logs,  windfalls  and  other  debris  from  the  right-of- 
way.  When  mounted  on  wheels  it  tends  to  bog  down  in  soft 
places  and,  therefore,  some  difficulty  is  experienced  in  using  such 
a  machine  on  logging  operations. 

Shovels  mounted  on  caterpillar  treads  and  equipped  with  a 
f-yard  dipper  often  are  preferred  to  either  of  the  types  first 
mentioned  because  they  can  be  moved  ahead  of  the  completed 
track.  Those  operated  by  a  30  horse-power  gasoline  engine  have 
proved  satisfactory,  especially  in  places  in  which  it  is  difficult 
to  secure  water  for  a  steam-operated  machine.  The  daily  gaso- 
line requirement  is  approximately  12  gallons,  which  amount  can 
be  readily  packed  to  the  shovel  from  the  end  of  the  railroad  line. 
Such  machines  have  an  average  capacity  of  from  20  to  25  cubic 
yards  of  material  per  hour,  and  on  easy  work  the  maximum  may 
be  from  40  to  48  yards. 
When  a  general  utility  machine  is  desired,  the  so-called  ditcher 
tj^pe  often  is  used.  This  is  a  combination  crane,  steam  shovel, 
pile  driver  and  wrecker  which  operates  from  rails  laid  on  top  of 
cars  or  on  the  ground.  This  type  of  machine  has  the  same  dis- 
advantages as  the  standard  steam  shovel  in  that  it  can  be  used 
only  at  or  near  the  rail  head.  The  cost  of  moving  earth  and  rock 
by  means  of  some  form  of  shovel  is  less  than  by  hand  methods 
when  the  cut  or  fill  is  large.  Shovel  work  often  compares  favorably 
in  cost  with  hand  methods  even  where  the  yardage  is  small. 

Power  Drag  Scrapers.  —  These  sometimes  are  used  in  making 
heavy  cuts  and  fills.  Power  is  provided  by  a  two-drum  yarding 
engine  which  operates  a  main  line  attached  to  the  fore  part  of 
the  scraper  which  pulls  it  forward  and  a  re-haul  which  returns 

1  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  data 
contained  in  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette. 


304  LOGGING 

the  scraper  to  the  working  point.  The  efficiency  of  this  method 
is  less  than  that  of  a  shovel  since  there  is  a  good  deal  of  lost  time 
incurred  especially  on  long  hauls  or  on  stony  ground.  The 
average  output  per  hour  of  scraping  time  on  one  operation  was 
16.7  cubic  yards  of  earth. ^ 

ROCK    EXCAVATION 

Previous  to  excavation,  rock  is  broken  by  an  explosive  into 
fragments  that  can  be  handled  readily. 

It  is  transported  chiefly  in  carts,  wagons  and  cars,  although 
it  may  be  moved  for  short  distances  on  wheelbarrows  or  thrown 
out  by  hand  in  shallow  cuts. 

A  cubic  yard,  place  measure,  of  rock  increases  from  60  to 
80  per  cent  when  broken  up.  On  an  average  only  60  per  cent 
as  much  yardage  of  rock  can  be  hauled  as  of  earth. 

Payment  for  the  removal  of  rock  which  is  classified  as  "loose 
rock"  and  "solid  rock"  is  on  the  basis  of  the  cubic  yard,  "in 
place." 

A.       BLASTING 

The  holes  in  which  charges  are  placed  are  usually  bored  with 
hand  drills.  The  diameter  and  spacing  of  holes  depend  upon  the 
kind  of  explosive  used,  the  character  of  the  rock  and  the  method 
of  handling  it.  As  a  rule,  the  holes  are  spaced  a  distance  apart 
equal  to  their  depth,  although  in  hard  rock  they  often  are  placed 
closer  together.  Close  spacing  increases  the  amount  of  drill 
work  required  and  the  quantity  of  explosive  used,  although  it 
is  often  more  economical  because  of  the  smaller  size  of  material, 
which  makes  handling  cheaper. 

Drilling?  —  Hand  drilling  usually  is  preferred  for  logging  work 
because  of  the  limited  amount  of  rock  moved  and  the  difficulties 
of  transporting  drilling  machinery  and  equipment  to  the  site  of 
the  work.  Power  driven  drills  are  used  on  some  operations  on 
which  there  is  a  large  amount  of  rock  work  to  be  done.  Most  of 
these  drills  are  operated  by  compressed  air  piped  from  a  compressor 
on  the  shovel  or  from  a  special  air-compressing  equipment,  driven 

1  See  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region.  By  W.  H.  Gibbons,  Bui.  No. 
711,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  page  188. 

2  See  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation,  by  H.  B.  Gillette,  McGraw-Hill 
Book  Co.,  Inc.,  New  York,  1916,  pp.  21  to  36. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  305 

by  a  gasoline  engine,  which  is  moved  forward  over  the  proposed 
route  in  advance  of  actual  rock  removal. 

There  are  three  forms  of  drills  used  for  hand  work;  namely, 
the  "churn  drill,"  "the  jumper  drill"  and  the  "hand  drill." 

Churn  Drill.  —  This  is  the  most  economical  form  of  drill  for 
holes  up  to  30  feet  in  depth  and  from  1^  to  2^  inches  in  diameter. 

The  drill  is  a  If-  or  1^-inch  round  iron  bar  of  the  required 
length,  on  one  end  of  which  is  welded  a  steel  chisel  bit  from 
30  to  100  per  cent  wider  than  the  diameter  of  the  rod.  Several 
rods  of  different  lengths  are  required  for  drilling  a  deep  hole. 

The  drill  is  operated  by  raising  it  from  18  to  24  inches  and 
allowing  it  to  drop.  One  man  can  operate  a  drill  for  holes  3  feet 
or  under  in  depth,  two  men  for  those  of  medium  depth  and  three 
or  four  men  for  the  deepest  holes. 

Trautwine  gives  the  following  as  an  average  ten  hours'  work 
for  a  churn  drill  : 


Charaoter  of  rock 


Diameter  of 

Depth  of 

hole 

hole 

Inches 

Feet 

13 

7  to    8 

13 

5  to    7 

l| 

3  to    5 

8  to    9 

If 

9  to  10 

Hard  gneiss,  granite  or  siliceous  limestone 

Tough  compact  hornblende 

Solid  quartz 

Ordinary  limestone 

Sandstone 


Jumper  Drill.  —  These  are  shorter  than  churn  drills  and  are 
operated  by  two  or  more  men;  one,  sitting  down,  holds  the  drill  and 
revolves  it  about  |  of  a  revolution  after  each  stroke,  while  the 
other  men  strike  the  drill  head  with  8-  or  12-pound  sledge 
hammers. 

The  drill  rods  are  of  |-inch  octagon  steel  and  the  bits  are  Ij 
or  IJ  inches  wide.  The  maximum  depth  for  efficient  work  with 
a  three-man  jumper  drill  does  not  exceed  8  feet. 

Since  it  can  be  held  on  the  exact  spot,  this  drill  can  be  used 
for  smaller  holes  than  a  churn  drill.  It  is  also  best  for  con- 
glomerate rock,  because  it  is  not  so  easily  deflected  by  pebbles. 

The  amount  of  work  performed  in  ten  hours  by  three  men,  one 
holder  and  two  strikers,  using  a  jumper  is  approximately  as  fol- 
lows for  holes  6  feet  in  depth  :^ 

1  From  "Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation,"  bj'  H.  B.  Gillette,  p.  26. 


306 


LOGGING 


Character  of  rock 

Feet 

Granite 

7 
11 
16 

Trap  (basalt) 

Limestone 

Hand  Drill.  —  The  hand  drilling  method  is  similar  to  jump 
drilling,  except  that  the  operator  sitting  down  holds  the  drill  with 
one  hand  and  strikes  the  drill  with  a  4^-poimd  hammer  held 
in  the  other  hand.  These  are  used  only  for  holes  of  small  diam- 
eter, 3  feet  or  less  in  depth.  This  drill  may  be  used  for  hori- 
zontal or  inclined  bores. 

Hand  drill  rods  are  made  of  octagon  steel  and  range  in  size 
from  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  f-  or  1-inch  bit,  up  to  a 
|-inch  rod  with  a  l|-inch  bit.  A  1-inch  drill  rod  is  the  maximum 
size  practicable.  Chisel-shaped  bits,  similar  to  those  for  jumper 
and  churn  drills,  are  used. 

B.       EXPLOSIVES^ 

Explosives  for  blasting  belong  to  two  general  classes: 

1.  High  explosives  which  require  an  intermediate  agent  for 
explosion,  such  as  a  fulminate  detonator. 

2.  Low  explosives  which  can  be  fired  by  direct  ignition. 
High  Explosives.  —  For  blasting  purposes  these  are  marketed 

in  the  form  of  dynamite,  giant  powder,  gelatine,  and  some  other 
similar  products.  The  more  powerful  forms  are  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  nitro-glycerine  and  some  absorbent,  such  as  sawdust 
and  wood  pulp,  while  the  lower  grades  contain  explosive  salts 
in  addition.  Nitro-glycerine  undergoes  no  change  when  com- 
bined with  the  absorbent,  the  latter  acting  only  as  a  cushion  and 
as  a  means  of  solidifying  the  liquid. 

High  explosives  are  made  of  varying  strengths  and  are  graded 
on  the  percentage  of  nitro-glycerine  they  contain.  The  standard 
grades  range  from  75  per  cent  down.  Those  most  frequently 
used  are  40  and  60  per  cent,  the  former  being  preferred  for  many 
classes  of  work. 

High-grade  dynamite  explodes  with  great  suddenness  and  will 
shatter  rocks  and  stumps  into  small  fragments.     It  is  especially 

^  The  author  is  indebted  to  pubhcations  of  the  E.  I.  DuPont  de  Nemours 
Co.,  for  many  facts  regarding  explosives. 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION  307 

suitable  for  very  hard  rock  or  where  small  drill  holes  are  necessary. 
Medium  grades  are  best  for  soft  rock  because  their  explosive 
force  is  not  so  violent  and  sudden,  and  the  tendency  is  to  heave 
up  large  masses  of  rock  rather  than  to  shatter  them  into  smaller 
fragments. 

Dynamite  which  is  rather  soft  resembles  brown  sugar.  It 
is  packed  in  paraffine  coated  paper  shells  or  cartridges,  the  stand- 
ard size  being  Ij  by  8  inches  and  containing  one-half  pound. 
Other  sizes,  from  |-inch  to  2  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches  and 
over  in  length  are  also  manufactured.  Dynamite  cartridges  are 
packed  in  sawdust  in  wooden  boxes  containing  25  or  50  pounds 
each. 

Dynamite  freezes  between  38  and  55  degrees  Fahrenheit  and 
when  frozen  must  be  thawed  before  use.  Thavv^ing  kettles  which 
are  best  for  this  work  consist  of  a  double  galvanized  iron  bucket 
having  an  inner  water-tight  receptacle  for  dynamite  and  an  outer 
receptacle  for  warm  water  which  must  not  exceed  100  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  otherwise  the  nitro-glycerine  may  separate  from  the 
absorbent.  Cartridges  are  sometimes  spread  out  on  a  shelf  in  a 
warm  room  and  left  during  the  night  but  should  never  be  thawed 
in  an  oven,  near  a  fire  or  placed  against  a  stove  or  steam  pipe. 
A  few  cartridges  can  be  easily  thawed  out  by  placing  them  flat 
in  a  water-tight  box  and  burying  them  in  fresh  manure. 

Some  of  the  low-freezing  dynamites  will  not  freeze  above  32 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  while  the  so-called  Trojan  powder  is  practically 
non-freezing.  Nitro-glycerine  evaporates  rapidly  at  158  degrees 
F.  and  at  104  degrees  F.  dynamite  may  lose  as  high  as  10  per 
cent  of  its  nitro-glycerine  in  a  few  days'  time.  Because  of  the 
tendency  of  nitro-glycerine  to  freeze  in  cold  weather  and  to 
evaporate  in  warm  weather  dynamite  should  be  kept  in  a  warm 
place  in  winter  and  in  a  cool  place  in  summer. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  dynamite  from  coming 
into  contact  with  moisture,  because  water  has  a  greater  affinity 
for  the  absorbent  than  has  nitro-glycerine,  and  the  latter  will  be 
driven  out;  on  low  grades  of  dynamite  the  salts  of  the  auxiliary- 
explosives  are  also  expelled. 

Dynamite  which  contains  impure  nitro-glycerine  deteriorates 
during  warm  weather,  when  stored  in  a  warm  place,  or  if  kept 
for  long  periods.  Chemical  decomposition  takes  place,  liberating 
nitrous  fumes  which  often  are  the  cause  of  violent  explosions. 


308  LOGGING 

A  greenish  color  on  the  cartridges  is  an  indication  of  chemical 
decomposition,  and  handling  dynamite  in  such  condition  is  always 
dangerous. 

Nitro-glycerine  from  the  cartridge  may  be  absorbed  through 
the  hands,  and  men  who  handle  dynamite  are  subject  to  severe 
headaches.  This  may  be  obviated  partially  by  wearing  gloves 
which  should  be  thrown  away  as  soon  as  they  become  saturated. 

Loading  Holes.  —  The  charge  should  completely  fill  the  bore 
hole  because  explosives  exert  the  greatest  disruptive  force  when 
there  are  no  air  spaces  below  the  tamping. 

In  loading  dry  holes  the  cartridge  case  is  cut  on  one  side,  and 
the  cartridge  lowered  into  the  hole  and  gently  pressed  until  it 
completely  fills  the  bore.  This  is  repeated  until  a  sufficient 
amount  of  explosive  has  been  placed.  When  the  hole  is  wet  the 
cartridge  case  should  not  be  cut. 

The  hole  is  now  ready  for  the  primer  and  for  tamping. 

Primers  and  Priming.  —  Most  forms  of  dynamite  are  exploded 
by  the  use  of  a  fulminate  detonator  or  cap,  which  is  ignited  either 
by  a  safety  fuse  or  an  electric  fuse.  The  former  is  used  for 
individual  charges  and  the  latter  where  many  are  to  be  fired 
simultaneously. 

Safety  Fuse  and  Caps.  —  There  are  several  grades  of  safety 
fuse  offered  on  the  market,  some  of  which  are  waterproofed  for 
submarine  work.  The  fuse  used  for  blasting  burns  at  the  rate 
of  2  or  3  feet  per  minute,  and  is  marketed  in  packages  containing 
two  coils,  each  50  feet  long. 

The  cap  is  a  hollow  copper  cylinder  J  by  1|  inches  in  size 
which  is  closed  at  one  end.  It  is  partly  filled  with  from  five 
to  thirty-one  grains  of  fulminate  of  mercury.  The  open  end  is 
sealed  with  shellac,  collodion,  thin  copper  foil,  or  paper.  Caps 
deteriorate  very  rapidly  when  exposed  to  moisture.  Several 
grades  are  made  but  for  general  use  a  No.  6^  is  preferred. 

In  making  the  primer  for  an  ordinary  blast  a  piece  of  safety 
fuse  of  the  required  length  is  cut  off  and  one  end  inserted  into 
the  cap  until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  filling.  The  fuse  is 
held  in  place  by  crimping  the  cap  |-inch  from  the  open  end. 
The  fuse  and  cap  are  then  ready  for  insertion  in  the  primer, 
which  is  a  cartridge  of  dynamite  of  the  same  size  and  quality 
as  that  used  in  the  charge. 

*  A  No.  6  cap  contains  15.4  grains  of  mercury  fulminate. 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION 


309 


There  are  two  methods  of  inserting  the  cap  into  the  primer. 
A  common  method  (Fig.  100a)  is  to  open  the  paper  at  the  end 
of  a  cartridge,  and,  with  a  sharpened  stick  about  the  size  of  a 
lead  pencil,  make  a  hole  f-inch  deep  in  the  dynamite.  The  cap, 
with  fuse  attached,  is  then  inserted  in  this  cavity  and  should 
project  |-inch  above  the  dynamite,  otherwise  the  sputtering  of 
the  fuse  may  ignite  the  dynamite  before  it  does  the  cap.  The 
cartridge  paper  is  then  tied  around  the  fuse  with  a  string,  care 
being  taken  not  to  pull  the  cap  out  of  the  primer.  If  the  car- 
tridges are  used  in  wet  places  soap  or  tallow  is  smeared  over 
the  safety  fuse  at  the  point  where  it  enters  the  cartridge  to  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  moisture  into  the 
blasting  cap. 

Some  persons  prefer  to  use  the 
method  of  attaching  caps  shown  in  Fig. 
1006.  A  hole  is  punched  in  the  side  of 
the  cartridge  with  a  sharp  wooden  stick 
and  the  fuse  attached  as  shown.  This 
method  is  satisfactory  because  the  fuse 
comes  against  the  side,  of  the  bore  and 
is  not  injured  or  disturbed  by  the  Fig.  100.  —  Method  of  plac- 
tamping  bar,  and  the  cap  cannot  be  ing  Caps  in  the  Primer, 
pulled  from  the  primer  and  thus  cause 
a  misfire. 

Primers  are  placed  on  top  of  the 
charge,  but  in  deep  holes,  manufac- 
turers recommend  that  additional 
blasting  caps  without  fuse  be  placed  at 
5-foot  intervals  throughout  the  charge. 

Electric  Fuse.  —  When  it  is  desired  to  fire  several  different 
charges  at  one  time  electric  fuses  are  used  in  connection  with  a 
battery.  They  consist  of  two  wires  inserted  in  a  cap  containing 
a  mixture  of  fulminate  of  mercury  and  potassium  nitrate  or 
chlorate.  The  open  end  of  the  cap  is  plugged  with  sulphur. 
The  fuses  are  adjusted  as  shown  in  Fig.  100c.  When  an  electirc 
fuse  is  used  the  primer  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  charge. 
The  practice  in  electric  firing  is  to  separate  the  two  wires  on  the 
fuse  and  connect  one  to  a  wire  on  a  charge  on  one  side  and  the 
other  to  one  on  a  charge  on  the  opposite  side.  The  entire  set 
is  connected  up  in  this  manner  leaving  one  free  wire  extending 


and  b,  are  for  firing  with 
safety  fuse,  c,  for  firing 
with    an    electric    battery. 

d,  shows  the  cap  ready  for 
the  insertion  of  the  fuse. 

e,  cap   with  fuse  inserted 
and  the  cap  shell  crimped. 


310  LOGGING 

both  from  the  first  a  d  the  last  hole.  The  two  leading  wires,  250 
feet  or  more  in  length,  are  then  connected  to  the  above  wires  and 
carried  to  some  protected  point.  When  all  is  in  readiness  the 
leading  wires  are  attached  to  the  poles  of  the  battery  and  the 
charge  fired  by  an  electric  firing  machine. 

Tamping.  —  Tamping  should  always  be  done  with  a  wooden 
bar,  never  with  a  tool  having  any  metal  parts,  and  the  tamping 
material  must  be  free  from  all  forms  of  grit,  and  of  such  a  nature 
that  it  will  pack  firmly.  The  most  satisfactory  is  moist  clay  or 
loam. 

After  the  charge  has  been  pressed  tightly  in  the  bore  a  paper 
wad  may  be  placed  over  the  primer  to  keep  it  dry  and  from  2 
to  3  inches  of  tamping  material  put  in  and  firmly,  but  gently, 
packed.  Two  or  3  inches  more  of  tamping  material  are  again 
added  and  throughly  tamped.  After  5  or  6  inches  of  earth 
have  been  placed  in  the  bore  the  tamping  can  be  carried  on 
without  fear  of  premature  explosion.  The  hole  should  be  filled 
to  the  surface  and  the  material  tightly  packed,  or  it  will  blow  out 
and  much  of  the  force  of  the  explosive  will  be  lost. 

Low  Explosives.  —  Low  explosives  belong  to  either  the  soda  or 
the  saltpeter  class  and  are  known  as  black  powder.  The  average 
contain  approximately  75  per  cent  of  nitrate  of  soda,  or  India 
saltpeter,  10  per  cent  of  sulphur,  and  15  per  cent  of  carbon. 
Dynamite  of  75  per  cent  strength  is  usually  rated  as  six  times 
stronger  than  average  black  powder.  Soda  powders  can  be  made 
cheaper  than  saltpeter  powders  but  are  more  absorbent  of  moisture 
and,  therefore,  deteriorate  quicker. 

Black  powder  is  especially  suited  for  loosening  hardpan,  shale, 
and  other  soft  or  rotten  rock  where  a  lifting  action  is  desired. 
It  is  much  slower  than  high-grade  dynamite  and  does  not  shatter 
the  rock  as  much.  It  is  also  used  in  redwood  operations  to 
blast  open  logs  that  are  too  large  to  be  handled  by  available 
equipment. 

Black  powder  is  fired  by  a  safety  fuse,  by  a  safety  fuse  and  a 
cap  of  low  power,  or  by  an  electric  fuse.  In  loading  holes  the 
powder  may  be  placed  loose  or  in  cartridges.  When  the  holes 
open  downward  the  latter  form  is  the  only  method  possible. 

In  priming  holes  it  is  customary  to  place  the  safety  fuse  or 
safety  fuse  and  cap  at  the  top  of  the  charge  while  electric  fuses 
are  ordinarily  placed  in  the  center  of  the  charge. 


RAILROAD   COx\STRUCTION  311 

Moist  clay  is  the  most  satisfactory  tamping  material,  2  or  3 
inches  of  dry  earth  being  placed  over  the  powder  to  prevent  the 
upper  end  of  the  charge  from  becoming  moist. 

When  blasting  with  black  powder  the  holes  may  be  "sprung" 
with  dynamite  before  the  powder  is  inserted,  in  order  that  a 
larger  cavity  may  be  made  for  the  powder.  Dynamite  of  40 
per  cent  strength  is  used  for  "springing,"  about  ^V  of  ^  pound 
per  cubic  yard  being  fired  in  shale,  and  yV  of  a  pound  per  cubic 
yard  in  sandstone.  "Sprung"  holes  should  not  be  charged  until 
they  have  become  cool. 

The  amount  of  black  powder  required  per  cubic  yard  of  material 
to  be  blasted  is  governed  by  the  depth  of  hole,  character  of 
rock,  and  spacing  of  holes.  Authorities  on  the  use  of  black 
powder  do  not  attempt  to  give  any  rules  for  determining  the 
amount  of  charge.  Charges  of  1  pound  per  cubic  yard  have 
proved  successful  in  side  cuts  and  from  1^  to  3  pounds  per  cubic 
yard  in  through  cuts.^  The  amount  to  use  under  given  condi- 
tions can  be  determined  only  after  a  few  trial  shots. 

Black  powder  is  put  up  in  25-  and  50-pound  cans. 


STUMP    BLASTING 

The  removal  of  stumps  from  the  right-of-way  of  roads,  trails, 
logging  grades,  and  from  pond  and  building  sites  can  often  be 
accomplished  to  best  advantage  by  the  use  of  explosives.  Dyna- 
mite of  the  20,  40  and  60  per  cent  grades  is  preferable  to  black 
powder  for  this  purpose. 

The  position  of  the  blast  w^th  reference  to  the  stump  should 
be  governed  by  the  size  of  stump,  character  of  root  system,  and 
kind  of  soil.  Charges  should  be  placed  under  the  main  body 
of  the  stump,  and  as  near  as  possible  to  its  toughest  part. 

In  sandy  soils,  stumps  with  a  shallow  root  system  require  more 
explosive  than  those  with  tap  roots.  They  blast  easier  in  heavy 
and  moist  soils  than  in  light  or  dry  ones. 

For  blasting  yellow  pine  stumps  with  long  tap  roots  the  charge 
should  be  placed  in  the  tap  root  and  at  a  distance  under  ground 
at  least  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  stump.  Forty  per  cent 
dynamite  is  usually  preferred. 

Cypress  stumps  have  many  lateral  roots  and  since  they  usually 

1  See  "Handbook  of  Cost  Data,"  by  H.  B.  Gillette,  p.  204. 


312  LOGGING 

grow  on  mucky  soil  they  are  difficult  to  blow  out.  A  quick 
powerful  explosive,  such  as  60  per  cent  dynamite,  is  recom- 
mended by  manufacturers.  The  common  practice  with  swamp 
species  is  to  place  a  |-pound  cartridge  under  each  large  lateral 
root,  and  4  or  5  pounds  under  the  center  of  the  stump.  The 
charge  is  then  fired  with  an  electric  blasting  machine. 

Stumps  with  defective  centers  often  split  apart  and  allow  the 
force  of  the  explosive  to  pass  upward  without  blowing  out  the 
roots.  This  can  be  obviated  by  placing  a  chain  around  the  top 
of  the  stump. 

The  holes  in  which  the  explosive  is  placed  are  best  bored  by 
a  2-inch  auger  welded  to  a  5-foot  iron  rod  that  has  a  ring  on  the 
upper  end  through  which  a  round  stick  can  be  inserted  for  a 
handle. 

The  depth  of  the  charge  below  the  stump  should  be  governed 
largely  by  the  size  of  the  stump.  Dynamite,  in  exploding, 
tends  to  exert  an  equal  force  in  all  directions.  When  placed 
under  a  stump  the  soil  below  the  charge  offers  greater  resistance 
than  the  soil  above  and  the  force  is  exerted  upward  in  the  form 
of  an  inverted  cone.  Consequently  the  deeper  the  charge  is 
placed  the  wider  the  cone  at  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

A  rule^  followed  with  success  in  Minnesota  was  to  place  the 
charge  at  least  1-foot  deep  for  all  stumps  1  foot  or  less  in  diam- 
eter, and  proportionally  deeper  as  the  diameter  increased. 

Holes  are  charged,  primed  and  tamped  in  a  manner  similar 
to  bore  holes  in  rock.  Enough  explosive  should  be  placed  under 
the  stump  to  remove  it  at  the  first  shot,  because  it  is  difficult 
to  make  an  effective  blast  in  loosened  dirt. 

One  thousand  stumps,  ranging  from  18  to  48  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  averaging  30  inches,  which  were  blasted  in  Minnesota 
required  from  one-half  to  eight,  40  per  cent  dynamite  cartridges, 
the  average  number  being  three  per  stump. 

The  DuPont  Powder  Company  recommends,  in  general,  a 
charge  of  1|  pounds  of  20  per  cent  dynamite  for  each  foot  in 
diameter  of  stump,  up  to  4  feet;  above  this  diameter  2|  pounds 
per  foot  in  diameter. 

On  dry  ground  one  man  can  bore  holes,  load,  and  blow  out 
an  average  of  fifty  stumps  per  day,  if  they  are  not  widely  scat- 
tered. 

1  See  Minnesota  Fanner's  Institute  Annual,  No.  21,  1908. 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION  313 


TIMBER   WORK 

The  construction  of  trestles,  culverts,  cribbing,  and  other 
timber  work  is  done  just  previous  to  track  laying. 

Trestles  are  used  in  crossing  streams  where  some  form  of  bridge 
is  required  and  to  span  depressions  when  it  is  necessary  to  elevate 
the  roadbed  above  the  ground  level  in  order  to  maintain  a  given 
grade.  They  usually  are  cheaper  than  a  fill  when  the  grade  line 
is  4  feet  or  more  above  the  ground  level,  and  although  less  per- 
manent, the  life  of  the  wooden  structure  is  generally  ample  to 
meet  the  logger's  needs.  Trestle  timbers  also  may  be  salvaged 
when  the  road  is  abandoned. 

They  are  built  in  two  types  known  as  pile  trestles  and  framed 
trestles,  and  are  made  in  sections,  called  bents,  which  are  spaced 
12  or  14  feet  apart. 

Pile  Trestles.  —  These  are  used  in  stream  beds  and  swampy 
spots  where  suitable  foundations  for  framed  trestles  cannot  be 
secured,  and  also  for  structures  75  feet  or  more  in  height  when  the 
cost  of  constructing  framed  trestles  is  high.^ 

Pile  trestles  are  cheaper  than  framed  trestles  when  the  rail- 
road grade  makes  an  oblique  angle  with  the  contours,  because  of 
the  saving  in  excavation  for  mud  sills  which  would  have  to  be 
cribbed  up  on  one  side  of  the  bent  and  sunk  into  the  earth  at  the 
opposite  side. 

Low  pile  trestle  bents  often  have  three  round  piles  from  12 
to  15  inches  in  diameter,  driven  in  a  row  across  the  roadbed. 
On  a  standard-gauge  road  one  pile  is  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  roadbed  and  the  outer  piles  are  placed  from  24  to  28  inches 
on  either  side  of  it.  On  medium-height  trestles  for  standard- 
gauge  track  four  piles  are  used,  the  two  inner  ones  being  spaced 
3  feet  apart,  center  to  center,  and  the  outer  piles  26  inches, 
center  to  center,  on  either  side  of  the  middle  ones.  When  the 
height  exceeds  100  feet,  five  or  six  piles  may  be  used.  They  are 
driven  with  a  pile  driver  to  bed  rock,  or  solid  bottom,  and  are 
sawed  off  at  the  required  height  above  ground.  A  10-  by  10- 
inch,  a  12-  by  12-inch,  or  a  15-  by  15-inch  timber,  called  a  "cap," 
is  drift  bolted  on  top  of  them  with  drift  bolts. 

1  Pile  trestles  120  feet  in  height  and  nearly  400  feet  long  have  been  erected 
in  the  Northwest,  to  span  canyons,  at  a  cost  far  below  that  for  any  other 
form  of  suitable  structure. 


314 


LOGGING 


4: 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION  315 

The  bents  are  connected  by  stringers,  each  8  by  14  inches  or 
9  by  16  inches  in  size,  which  are  placed  at  right  angles  on  top  of 
the  caps  and  support  the  crossties.  Two  stringers  are  used  under 
each  rail.  They  are  spaced  2  inches  apart  with  washers,  and 
then  bolted  together.  They  may  also  be  drift  bolted  to  the  caps 
to  hold  them  in  position.  Sawed  ties/  6  by  8  inches  by  8  feet, 
are  placed  24  inches,  center  to  center,  on  top  of  the  stringers, 
and  are  often  sunk  about  ^  inch  into  them.  Every  fourth  or  fifth 
crosstie  also  is  drift-bolted  to  the  stringers.  Three-  by  8-inch 
guard  rails  are  then  placed  on  top  of  the  ends  of  the  ties  parallel 
to  the  stringers  and  spiked  to  every  other  tie  to  prevent  the  ties 
from  bunching. 

When  the  trestle  is  less  than  9  feet  high  it  is  seldom  braced, 
but  where  the  height  exceeds  this  it  is  braced  on  each  side  with 
3-  by  6-inch  scantlings  placed  diagonally  across  each  row  of  piles, 
the  top  end  of  the  brace  being  fastened  to  the  cap  and  the  lower 
end  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  bent  just  above  the  ground.  The 
scantlings  are  spiked  to  the  cap  and  to  each  pile. 

Where  the  bent  exceeds  20  feet  in  height  it  is  divided  into  two 
or  more  stories  by  horizontal  braces,  of  3-  by  8-inch  scantlings, 
and  each  story  is  braced  diagonally  in  the  manner  described  above. 
At  each  story  every  bent  is  connected  by  a  longitudinal  brace. 
Bents  over  20  feet  in  height  have  five  piles  whose  diameter 
should  not  be  less  than  one-twentieth  of  their  length.  One  pile 
is  placed  in  the  center  of  each  bent  and  two  others  are  placed  on 
either  side  at  a  distance  of  approximately  24  inches,  center  to 
center.  The  two  other  piles  are  placed  about  1  foot  out  at 
the  top  of  the  bent  and  are  given  a  batter  of  2  inches  for  each 
foot  of  height. 

In  swampy  sections  the  main  line  is  sometimes  built  on  piling. 
The  advantage  of  this  form  of  road  is  that  a  firm  foundation  is 
secured  in  places  where  dirt  ballast  could  not  be  used,  stumps 
need  not  be  removed,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  for  the  first 
few  years  is  low. 

In  cypress  swamps  these  roads  are  made  of  piles  from  12  to 
15  inches  in  diameter,  driven  down  to  a  solid  foundation,  which 
may  be  from  60  to  80  feet.  Piles  30  feet  long  are  made  from  one 
cypress  stick  but  lengths  greater  than  this  are  secured  by  placing 

1  Hewed  crossties  are  seldom  used  for  trestle  work  because  of  the  variation 
in  thickness. 


316  LOGGING 

piles  on  top  of  one  another.  Cypress  is  used  for  the  top  log 
and  tupelo  for  the  lower  ones.  The  bents  are  placed  at  6-foot 
intervals  and  have  two  piles  driven  56|  inches  apart,  center  to 
center. 

A  pile  driver  crew  for  building  a  road  of  this  character  is  made 
up  of  eight  men  who  can  cut  and  drive  from  twenty  to  thirty-six 
piles  (from  60  to  100  feet  of  track)  per  day  of  ten  hours.     The 


Photofjraph  by  R.  C.  Hall. 

Fig.  102.  —  A  Round- tun  her  irunu'd  Logging  Railroad  Trestle.     The  Skid- 
way  on  the  right  is  several  feet  below  the  level  of  the  track.     Alabama. 

roads  are  built  from  2  to  6  feet  above  the  ground  level,  and  the 
piles  are  sawed  off  at  the  desired  height. 

Stringers  8  by  8  inches,  or  8  by  10  inches,  are  laid  on  top  of  the 
piles  and  on  these  6-  by  8-inch  by  8-foot  crossties  are  laid,  24 
inches  center  to  center. 

Framed  Trestles.  —  These  are  made  both  of  round  and  squared 
timbers,  but  if  the  former  must  be  brought  from  a  considerable 
distance  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  latter  because  they  are  easier 
to  fit,  and  are  more  durable. 

The  frames,  or  bents,  have  four  supports,  or  legs,  from  15  to 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION 


317 


18  inches  in  diameter  or  10-  by  12-inch,  or  12-  l)y  12-inch  squared 
timbers.  On  a  standard-gauge  road  two  of  the  legs  are  vertical 
and  36  inches  apart,  while  the  other  two  legs  are  given  a  batter 
of  from  2  to  3  inches  for  each  foot  of  height.  The  legs  rest  on 
a  timber  called  a  sill  to  which  they  are  drift  bolted.  Sills  vary 
in  length  according  to  the  height  of  the  trestle  and  project  about 


•  The  Pole  Foundation  for  a  D  i 
Louisiana. 


2  feet  beyond  the  base  of  the  outer  legs.  The  tops  of  the  legs 
are  covered  with  a  cap  12  or  14  feet  long  on  which  the  stringers 
rest. 

Framed  bents  may  rest  on  mud  sills,  or  on  piles.  When  the 
former  are  used  they  are  frequently  3  by  12  inches  by  4  feet  in 
size  and  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  bent,  and  a  sufficient 
number  are  used  to  provide  a  greater  bearing  surface  than  that 
offered  by  the  main  sill.  Mud  sills  are  suited  for  a  bottom  solid 
enough  to  provide  a  firm  support  but  they  are  not  adapted  to 
use  in  swamps  or  stream  beds.     The  foundations  used  in  the 


318  LOGGING 

two  latter  cases  have  piles  driven  to  bed  rock,  one  being  placed 
under  the  base  of  each  leg,  and  cut  off  2  or  3  feet  above  high- 
water  mark. 

Stringers,  ties  and  guard  rails  are  used  as  on  a  pile  trestle, 
and  the  bents  are  braced  in  the  same  manner. 

Framed  trestles  often  are  put  together  on  the  ground  and  raised 
to  a  vertical  position  by  means  of  a  hoisting  or  yarding  engine 
and  suitable  blocks  and  tackle.  Trestles  132  feet  in  height  and 
600  feet  long  have  been  erected  in  this  manner.  This  procedure 
reduces  the  amount  of  top  work  necessary  and  makes  it  possible 
to  use  less  skilled  labor  than  would  be  required  if  the  bents  were 
framed  in  the  air.  Standardized  framed  trestle  structures  have 
been  designed  for  use  on  lines  where  f;:^quent  changes  in  roadbed 
are  necessary.  The  structure  is  built  in  sections  or  units  which  may 
be  taken  down  and  readily  placed  in  a  new  structure  without 
reframing.  This  practice,  however,  is  not  followed  extensively 
in  logging  railroad  construction. 

Cost  of  Trestles.  —  Framed  trestles  are  frequently  built  by 
contract,  the  price  being  regulated  by  the  amount  of  timber  used 
and  the  height  of  the  trestle.  Payment  for  pile  trestles,  when 
built  by  contract,  is  made  on  the  })asis  of  the  number  of  piles 
driven  and  the  amount  of  sawed  timber  used  in  the  remainder 
of  the  structure. 

Truss  Bridge.  —  This  type  of  bridge  is  not  in  common  use 
although  some  have  been  built  where  the  conditions  were  un- 
favorable for  the  erection  of  pile  or  framed  trestles. 

Dunnage  or  Dust  Road.  —  This  is  a  type  of  a  cheap  logging 
road  employed  for  spurs  in  the  cypress  swamps  of  Louisiana 
where  the  bottom  is  too  soft  for  dirt  ballast,  and  the  cost  of 
a  pile  road  is  not  warranted  by  the  amount  of  timber  to  be  re- 
moved. 

The  construction  of  a  dunnage  road  is  preceded  by  clearing 
a  right-of-way  from  15  to  20  feet  wide  from  which  all  brush  is 
cut  and  stumps  removed  from  the  line  of  the  roadbed.  The  latter 
is  covered  with  small  poles  5  or  6  inches  in  diameter,  laid  close 
together,  lengthwise  of  the  right-of-way.  These  give  a  wide 
bearing  surface  and  serve  as  a  bed  on  which  the  ballast  is 
placed.  The  crossties  are  laid  on  the  poles  and  the  rails  spiked 
to  them.  The  track  is  then  ballasted  with  bark,  edgings,  saw- 
dust and  other  sawmill  refuse  which  is  brought  from  the  mill 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  319 

in  "dunnage"  cars.  The  dunnage  is  dumped  on  either  side 
of  the  rails,  then  thoroughly  tamped  under  the  ties  and,  when  the 
track  is  leveled  up,  it  is  ready  for  operation.  Light-weight 
locomotives,  from  18  to  30  tons,  are  used  because  this  type  of 
roadbed  will  not  stand  heavy  traffic. 

Cribwork.  —  A  crib  foundation  may  be  used  when  logging 
railroads  cross  low  places  that  are  too  soft  for  a  fill,  and  where 
the  lumber  company  is  not  prepared  to  put  in  piling.  Logs  18  or 
24  inches  in  diameter  and  16  or  18  feet  long  are  placed  across 
the  right-of-way  at  intervals  of  8  feet.  On  top  of  these,  and 
parallel  to  the  roadbed,  round  stringers  from  18  to  24  inches  in 

J^ltiiWlit^**f^*"' '^*^'*!3tf' ^  "'  •«  w««^ 


^Ibim. 

Photograph  by  F.  W.  Haasis. 

Fig.  104.  —  A  Crib  Bridge  on  a  Logging  Railroad  Spur.     A  cheap  method 
of  spanning  shallow  depressions.     Louisiana. 

diameter  are  placed  56|  inches,  center  to  center.  These  are 
notched  into  the  cross-skids  and  drift  bolted  to  them.  The 
crossties  are  then  laid  on  top  of  these  stringers.  The  cross- 
skids  are  given  a  greater  bearing  surface  by  placing  "shims"  or 
poles  from  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter  and  8  or  10  feet  long  at 
right  angles  under  them. 

Cribbed  bents,  similar  to  those  shown  in  Fig.  104,  are  some- 
times used  on  spur  lines  to  span  shallow  depressions  because  they 
can  be  rapidly  constructed  at  a  low  labor  cost.  They  are  now 
seldom  used  when  a  structure  more  than  a  few  feet  in  height  is 
erected  because  of  the  large  amount  of  timber  required  to  con- 
struct them. 

Corduroy  for  Logging  Roads.  —  Loggers  in  the  South  often 
corduroy  unballasted  spur  tracks  on  wet  ground  with  16-  or  20- 
foot  poles  from  4  to  12  inches  in  diameter  (Fig.  105).  The  poles 
are  placed  between  each  tie  and  project  out  far  enough  on  either 


320 


LOGGING 


side  to  rest  on  solid  ground  or  on  roots  and  provide  a  level  support 
to  the  track.  Even  though  the  latter  does  sink  temporarily 
under  the  weight  of  the  train,  it  will  go  down  evenly  so  that 
there  is  no  danger  of  derailment,  while  shims  or  poles  placed 


Fig.  105.  —  A  Hpur  Logging  Railroad  Corduroyed  with  Poles  in  order  to 
provide  an  Adequate  Bearing  Surface  on  a  Soft  Bottom.     Arkansas. 

under  the  ties  parallel  with  the  roadbed  often  allow  the  track  to 
settle  on  one  side. 

Another  advantage  of  cross  poles  is  that  they  will  support  the 
car  wheels  in  case  of  derailment.  One  man  can  cut  poles  and 
lay  them  in  place  on  100  feet  of  track  daily,  provided  the  material 
is  close  at  hand. 

When  spurs  cross  swampy  ground,  some  loggers  dispense  with 
ties  and  cover  the  roadbed  with  large  poles  10  or  12  feet  long  to 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION 


321 


which  the  rails  are  spiked.     A  road  of  this  character  will  support 
traffic  on  a  very  wet  bottom  better  than  a  dirt  grade. 

Brush  Ballast.  —  Spur  tracks  crossing  swamps  and  muddy 
places  often  are  ballasted  with  brush,  including  swamped  tree 
tops,  piled  2  or  3  feet  high  on  the  grade.  Coniferous  brush  is  pref- 
erable to  hardwood,  but  either  may  be  used.     The  crossties  are  laid 


Fig.  106.  —  A  Culvert  on  a  Logging  Railroad  Spur  ready  for  the  Earth 
Cover.  Note  the  use  of  non-merchantaV)le  material  for  filling  depressions 
on  both  sides  of  the  culvert.     Washington. 

on  top  of  the  brush  and  the  rails  spiked  to  them.  When  the  track 
has  been  used  a  few  times  the  brush  ballast  flattens  out  and  cross 
poles  are  then  placed  between  the  ties.  One  man  can  cut  and 
pile  brush  on  from  100  to  150  feet  of  roadbed,  per  day,  provided 
it  can  be  secured  along  the  right-of-way. 

Culverts.  —  These  are  used  where  the  grade  crosses  very  small 
streams,  or  slight  depressions  where  it  is  necessary  to  have  drainage 
from  one  side  of  the  grade  to  the  other. 

They  are  ordinarily  made  by  placing  logs  from  18  to  30  inches 


322  LOGGING 

in  diameter  across  the  right-of-way  on  either  side  of  the  stream 
or  depression  and  covering  them  with  slabs  split  from  12-  to  18- 
inch  timbers^.  Brush  is  often  piled  on  top  of  the  slabs  to  prevent 
the  dirt  from  falling  through,  and  the  grade  is  then  built  over  the 
culvert. 

When  the  span  is  short  and  the  grade  is  high  enough  above  the 
stream  to  permit  it,  several  poles  or  crossties  may  be  laid  across 
the  gap  parallel  to  the  roadbed,  and  the  crossties  supporting 
the  rails  placed  on  top  of  them. 

Box  culverts  made  of  plank  are  seldom  used  because  of  the 
greater  cost  for  material.  Round  galvanized  iron  culverts  are 
now  used  on  some  main  lines. 

Cattle  Guards.  —  Log  roads  that  pass  over  private  lands  or 
cross  public  highways  use  cattle  guards  to  prevent  stock  from 
passing  down  the  right-of-way.  The  usual  type  is  an  open  pit 
3  or  4  feet  deep,  5^  feet  long  and  3  or  4  feet  wide,  which  is  in- 
closed with  a  frame  of  12-  by  12-inch  timbers.  A  division  fence 
extends  from  the  guard  to  the  highway  fence. 

TRACK    SUPPLIES 

Crossties.  —  The  size  of  crossties  used  depends  on  the  gauge 
of  the  road.  They  may  be  sawed  or  hewed.  Narrow-gauge  ties 
are  made  6  or  7  feet  long  and  standard-gauge  ones  are  8  feet. 
Squared  ties  are  6  by  8  inches  in  size  and  pole  ties,  for  a  narrow 
gauge,  have  a  3-  to  5-inch  face,  and  for  a  standard-gauge  a  6-inch 
face. 

Ties  usually  are  cut  on  the  operation  and  are  made  both  from 
hardwoods  and  softwoods.  Hewed  pole  ties  made  from  second- 
growth  pine  are  seldom  as  satisfactory  as  squared  ones  because 
they  break  readily  and  cause  frequent  derailments.  An  expert 
tie  hacker  will  hew  thirty-five  or  forty  standard  ties  per  day,  an 
average  man  twenty-five  or  thirty.  Some  operators  who  own 
sawmills  and  cut  crossties  for  the  market  use  the  rejects  on  their 
logging  operation. 

New  tics  are  placed  at  24-inch  intervals,  center  to  center,  on 
main  lines  and  spurs.  On  the  latter  they  wear  out  before  they 
decay  because  of  the  frequent  pulling  and  driving  of  spikes.  On 
tangents  only  every  other  tie  may  be  spiked  which  lengthens  its 

1  See  Fig.  106. 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION 


323 


life  because  a  tie  which  has  been  spiked  four  times  becomes  so 
weakened  that  it  often  breaks  under  the  rail  especially  if  the  ends 
of  the  tie  are  not  well  ballasted.  When  spurs  are  taken  up  only 
two  spikes  in  each  crosstie  may  be  pulled,  one  on  the  outer  side 
of  one  rail  and  the  other  on  the  inner  side  of  the  opposite  rail. 
The  tie  may  then  be  forced  to  one  side  and  removed.  When  the 
track  is  relaid,  the  spikes  in  the  tie  are  pulled  slightly,  the  rail 
slipped  under  the  spike  heads  and  the  latter  then  driven  tight 
against  the  rail  flange.  The  average  annual  tie  renewals  on 
southern  logging  operations  average  about  two  hundred  per  year. 

Crossties  of  special  length  are  required  for  a  switch.     A  set 
of  timbers  for  a  single  switch  ranges  in  length  from  9  to  15  feet 
and  the  number   varies  with   the  frog;    e.g.  a  number  8  frog 
requires    47    and    a    number  10  frog    56. 
These   are   often  sawed  out  in  the  mill. 
On    rough    track    the    long    switch    ties 
may  be  replaced  by  two  standard-length 
ones. 

Steel  Rails.  —  Rails  are  classified  ac- 
cording to  their  weight  in  pounds  per 
linear  yard,  and  those  of  a  given  weight 
are  now  made  of  a  uniform  size. 

The  chief  parts  of  a  rail  are  the  head, 
the  web,  and  the  flange  base.  The  head 
contains  42  per  cent  of  the  metal,  the  web 
21  per  cent  and  the  flange  37  per  cent. 

WEIGHTS  AND   DIMENSIONS  OF  STANDARD   RAILS 


^ 


:i 


Fig.  107.  —  A  Standard 
Rail  Head,  a,  the  head. 
b,     the     web.      c,    the 


Weight  per  yard  in  pounds 

Rail  part 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

Dimensions  in  inches 

A                     

11 
If 

1 

Iff 

2 

h 
3-: 

-; 
1-i 
ll^^ 

2J 

2i 

it 

Hi 

2-^ 

1/2 

1 

41 

H 

2il 

IH 

2i| 

B                   

C  and  D         

4-s 

E                    

fs 

F                  

2f? 

G                    

hz 

324 


LOGGING 


Rails  are  sold  by  the  long  ton.  Although  the  standard  rail 
length  is  30  feet,  shippers  reserve  the  right  to  include  10  per 
cent  of  from  24-  to  28-foot  rails  in  a  given  order. 

Narrow-gauge  roads  use  25-  or  35-pound  rails;  and  standard- 
gauge  35-  or  45-pound  rails  on  spurs,  and  from  45-  to  70-pound 
rails  on  main  lines.  The  lighter  rails  are  an  advantage  on  spurs 
because  they  can  be  handled  more  readily. 

The  long  tons  of  rails  of  different  weights  required  per  mile 
of  road  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  weight  per  yard  by  11 
and  dividing  the  result  by  7.^  Ordinarily  the  weight  of  the  rail 
in  pounds  per  yard  should  equal  the  number  of  short  tons  carried 
on  all  the  drivers  of  the  heaviest  locomotive  that  is  to  be  used. 


Fig.  108.  —  Forms  of  Rail  Fastenings,     a,  angle  bars.     6,  fish  plates. 


For  example,  a  locomotive  having  a  weight  of  80,000  pounds 
on  its  drivers  should  not  be  operated  on  less  than  a  40-pound 
rail. 

Lumber  companies  may  buy  or  lease  second-hand  rails  from 
trunk-line  railroads.  The  latter  practice  was  common  in  some 
sections,  where  trunk  lines  had  second-hand  steel,  which  accumu- 
lated when  a  change  in  the  weight  of  the  rails  was  made  on  their 
lines.  The  lease  of  steel  at  low  rates  served  to  encourage  the 
development  of  the  lumber  industry  along  the  trunk  line  because 
it  reduced  the  lumberman's  investment  in  equipment. 

Rail  Fastenings.  —  Either  angle  bars  or  fish  plates  are  used  to 
strengthen  and  brace  the  rails  at  the  joint. 

Angle  bars,  which  are  of  several  patterns,  are  bolted  on  each 
side  of  the  joint  with  from  two  or  three  bolts  in  each  rail  head 
(Fig.  108a.)  They  are  used  both  on  main-line  and  spur  logging 
roads. 


1  Example: 
640  pounds. 


weight  of  rail,  60  pounds  per  yard;    then 


60  X  11 


=  94  tons, 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION 


325 


Fish  plates,  sometimes  called  "straps,"  are  plain  bars  of  steel 
bolted  to  the  rail  in  the  same  manner  as  the  angle  bars,  but 
usually  with  not  more  than  two  bolts  per  rail  head  (Fig.  1086). 
They  are  especially  adapted  to  spur  track  use  because  they  can 
be  put  on  quicker  than  angle  bars  and  are  equally  serviceable  for 
light  traffic.     Standard  requirements  call  for  357  joints  per  mile. 

Spikes.  —  Rails  are  fastened  to  the  crossties  by  square  spikes 
which  vary  in  length  and  size  with  the  weight  of  rail.  Four 
spikes  are  driven  to  each  tie,  one  on  each  side  of^each  rail. 


ESTIMATED  AMOUNT  OF  MATERIAL  REQUIRED  FOR  ONE 
MILE  OF  TRACK  FOR  RAILS  OF  A  GIVEN  WEIGHT 


Weight  of  rails 
per  yard 

Number  of  tons 
of  2240  pounds , 

Pounds  of  spikes  . 

Number  of  angle 
bars 

Number  of  cross- 
ties 

Pounds  of  bolts 
and  nuts 


16 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

55 

60 

2oA 
1689 

31i«T 

1689 

39f 
2708 

471 
2708 

55 

2708 

621 
4182 

70f 
4182 

86A 
5867 

94^ 
5867 

357 

357 

357 

357 

357 

357 

357 

357 

357 

3520 

3520 

3520 

3520 

3017 

2640 

2640 

2640 

2640 

546 

582 

582 

610 

610 

1073 

1073 

1146 

1169 

6.5 

102f 
5867 

357 

2348 

1169 


Turnouts.  —  The  device  used  to  connect  two  given  sets  of 
track  is  known  as  a  turnout.  It  has  three  separate  parts  known 
as  the  switch,  the  frog  and  the  guard  rails. 

(1)  The  switch  is  the  movable  part  of  the  turnout  and  is 
the  point  at  which  the  two  divergent  tracks  meet.  There  are 
two  kinds  in  use  by  loggers;  (a)  the  stub-switch  in  which  both 
main-line  rails  are  cut  (Fig.  109),  and  (b)  the  split  switch  in  which 
but  one  main-line  rail  is  cut  (Fig.  109).  The  latter  is  preferred 
because  of  its  greater  safety. 

(2)  Frogs  provide  the  means  by  which  the  flanges  of  the  wheels 
can  cross  the  rail  of  the  track  when  the  train  is  entering  or  leaving 
a  switch  (Fig.  109c).  Frogs  are  built  ready  for  use  in  the  track 
and  are  made  for  various  degrees  of  curvature,  each  size  being 
designated  by  a  number  Those  in  most  common  use  on  stand- 
ard-gauge logging  roads  are  No.  6  (9°  32'),  No.  8  (7°  09')  and 
No.  10  (5^  43').  The  numl)er  of  a  given  frog  can  be  determined 
by  dividing  the  length  of  frog  by  the  width  of  the  frog  heel, 
the  quotient  being  the  frog  number. 

(3)  Both  on  the  main  line  and  the  spurs,  guard  rails,  from  10 


326 


LOGGING 


to  15  feet  long,  are  placed  opposite  the  frog  and  serve  to  hold  the 
wheel  flanges  against  the  outer  rail  and  thus  make  the  wheel 
flanges  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  car  follow  the  proper  rail.  The 
space  between  the  head  of  the  guard  rail  and  that  of  the  main 
rail  is  2  inches. 


Tly  Rail  GuarJ  Rait 

Ry„  y.  f;^.  Q  n  n  n  n  nm  n 


Ground  th; 
Switch  Standi 


a  STUB  SWITCH 

nnnnnnnn 


b     SPLIT  SWITCH 


de  =Toeof  Frog 
ab    =Frog  Heel 
acb  -Frog  Angle  =  dee 
ch  -  Length  of  Frog 
The  Frog  Number  "»!.'•=  |r 

Fig.  109.  —  Two  Forms  of  Turnouts  used  on  Logging  Railroads,     a,   the 
stub  switch,     h,  the  spUt  switch,     c,  a  standard  frog. 


STEEL   LAYING   AND    REMOVAL 


The  work  of  laying  steel  and  taking  it  up  may  be  done  either 
by  hand  labor,  or  by  track-laying  and  lifting  machines.  The 
work  is  done  both  by  contract  and  by  day  labor,  although  the 
latter  is  the  more  common. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  327 

A  crew  of  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-five  men,  provided  with 
a  light  engine,  and  one  or  more  cars  carrying  crossties,  rails  and 
other  supplies  will  lay,  by  hand,  from  1500  to  2000  feet  of  track, 
daily.  The  usual  unit  for  expressing  the  amount  of  work  done 
in  laying  or  taking  up  track  is  the  30-foot  rail  and  the  average 
day's  work  for  each  man  in  the  crew  is  from  five  to  six  rails  either 
laid  in  the  track  or  taken  up  or  both.  Some  highly  efficient 
crews  are  able  to  lay  ten  rails  per  man,  daily.  When  laying  or 
taking  up  track  by  hand,  the  rails  and  ties  are  carried  on  flat 
cars  each  holding  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pairs  of  rails  with  the 
required  number  of  ties.  The  cars  are  pushed  ahead  of  the  lo- 
comotive to  the  point  where  construction  is  to  begin.  Ties 
are  then  laid  in  position  on  the  right-of-way,  and  the  rails  placed 
on  them.  The  rails  are  connected  by  angle  bars  or  fish  plates 
and  spiked  to  every  third  or  fourth  tie.  This  gives  the  rail 
sufficient  bracing  to  hold  up  the  train  which  is  pushed  forward 
a  rail  length  and  the  operation  repeated.  In  taking  up  track  this 
process  is  reversed.  The  cost  is  about  the  same  as  for  laying 
track. 

Track-lajdng  crews  are  followed  by  back  spikers,  who  complete 
the  spiking  of  the  track.  On  main  line  and  curves  four  spikes 
are  placed  in  each  tie,  two  for  each  rail,  but  on  spurs  every  other 
tie  may  be  spiked.  The  track  can  be  taken  up  more  readily 
if  it  has  a  minimum  number  of  spikes  to  pull  and  the  life  of  the 
tie  is  also  increased.  A  crew  of  seven  men  will  back-spike  1600 
feet  of  track  per  day. 

Spurs  are  moved  with  such  frequency  that  it  is  seldom  feasible 
to  carry  a  stock  of  bent  rails  for  curved  portions  of  the  track. 
In  nearly  all  cases  it  is  practicable  to  bend  the  rails  to  the  proper 
curve  as  they  are  spiked.  On  main-line  work  a  rail-bending 
machine  is  sometimes  used. 

Where  spurs  are  being  built  constantly  the  steel-laying  crew 
may  spend  alternate  days  in  removing  steel  and  ties  from  an 
abandoned  road  and  in  placing  them  on  a  new  roadbed. 

On  main  lines  the  expansion  of  the  rails  during  warm  weather 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  order  to  prevent  buckling.  To 
remedy  this  a  space  of  i%  inch  in  winter  and  yV  inch  in  summer 
is  left  between  rail  ends.  On  spurs  the  rails  seldom  fit  closely 
so  that  this  factor  may  be  disregarded. 

Hand  methods  require  a  crew  of  strong  men  to  handle  the  heavy 


328  LOGGING 

crossties  and  rails  and  a  full  crew  is  necessary  to  work  to  advantage. 
In  order  to  reduce  the  amount  of  hea\y  work  involved  in  track 
laying  and  lifting  and  to  make  it  possible  to  work  efficiently  with 
a  smaller  crew  of  average  strength  men,  several  types  of  track 
laying  and  lifting  machines  have  been  devised.  These  are  of 
two  general  types:  (1)  those  that  handle  the  rails  and  ties  in  sec- 
tions or  panels  one  rail  length  long;  (2)  those  that  handle  rails 
and  ties  separately. 

The  first  method  is  best  adapted  to  flat  lands  where  there  are 
few  curves  and  turnouts  on  the  line,  for  where  these  occur  the 
track  sections  must  be  broken  up  before  they  can  be  relaid. 
The  rails  are  laid  with  "even  joints."  The  equipment  includes 
a  locomotive,  several  flat  cars  and  a  locomotive  crane  mounted 
on  a  flat  car.  The  train  is  backed  out  to  the  end  of  the  line 
that  is  to  be  taken  up,  the  bolts  on  one  end  of  the  fish  plates 
are  removed,  and  chains  are  attached  to  each  corner  of  a  30- 
foot  section,  which  is  then  elevated  several  feet  by  means  of  a 
cable  on  the  track  mover.  The  latter  is  then  revolved  in  an  arc  of 
180  degrees  and  the  section  deposited  on  the  flat  car  directly 
behind  it.  The  train  is  then  run  forward  a  rail  length  and  the 
process  repeated.  When  ten  sections,  or  300  feet  of  track,  have 
been  placed  on  a  flat  car,  it  is  switched  out  by  the  locomotive  and 
an  empty  substituted.  After  loading  several  flat  cars,  the  train 
proceeds  to  a  new  line  where  with  the 'track  mover  ahead  the 
process  is  reversed  and  the  track  laid.  On  one  operation  a  track 
foreman,  who  ran  the  machine,  one  laborer  on  the  flat  car  to 
fasten  and  loosen  chains,  and  three  or  four  laborers  on  the  ground 
to  handle  the  sections  and  to  bolt  up  and  unbolt  fish  plates  have 
laid  2000  feet  of  track  daily,  in  addition  to  clearing  the  right-of-way 
and  cutting  wood  for  fuel. 

When  there  are  many  curves  in  the  track  it  is  cheaper  to  break 
up  the  panels  and  to  handle  the  crossties  and  rails  separately. 
Two  general  types  of  machines  adapted  to  this  work  are  on  the 
market.  One  of  them,  the  so-called  Norby  track-laying  and  lifting 
machine^  is  mounted  on  a  42-foot  flat  car  and  has  a  skeleton  steel 
hollow  framework  12  feet  high,  10|  feet  wide  and  from  34  to 
40  feet  long.  An  over-head  I-beam  track  is  bolted  to  the  frame- 
work over  the  center  of  the  car  and  extends  26  feet  beyond  both 
ends  of  the  framework.  A  four-wheeled  trolley  travels  along 
1  See  Fig.  110. 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION  329 

this  track,  being  actuated  by  an  endless  cable  driven  by  two  drums 
and  a  5-  by  7-inch  twin  engine  placed  above  the  center  of  the  steel 
framework.  Steam  for  the  engine  is  piped  from  the  locomotive. 
Both  the  rails  and  the  crossties  are  handled  by  this  trolley.  A 
track-laying  outfit  comprises  the  track-laying  machine,  a  flat 
car  for  crossties  and  a  locomotive.  In  taking  up  track,  the  train 
with  the  track  machine  in  front  is  pushed  within  30  feet  of  the 
end  of  the  road  and  the  rail  fastenings  removed.  The  trolley 
is  then  run  out  to  the  end  of  the  boom  and  a  loose  rail  lifted  by 
means  of  rail  tongs  and  carried  back  and  dropped  under  the  frame- 
work of  the  machine.  When  both  rails  have  been  placed  on  the 
car,  the  crossties  are  made  up  into  bundles  containing  several 
pieces,  a  choker  is  placed  around  them  and  the  unit  raised  by 


Fig.  110.  —  The  Norby  Track-Laying  and  Lifting  Device.. 

the  trolley  and  carried  above  the  rails  on  the  car  to  a  flat  car  at 
the  rear  of  the  machine.  A  crew  of  twelve  men,  exclusive  of 
the  foreman  and  the  locomotive  attendants,  can  pick  up  or  lay 
about  1800  feet  of  track  daily. 

Another  type  of  track-laying  and  lifting  machine  is  mounted 
on  a  special  car  with  a  steel  framework  and  has  two  endless  parallel 
chains  spaced  about  4  feet  apart  which  extend  from  the  rear  of  the 
machine  to  the  ends  of  a  cantilever  arm  which  projects  22  feet 
beyond  the  trucks  on  the  forward  part  of  the  machine.  These 
chains  are  driven  by  a  small  reversible  duplex  engine,  which  is 
furnished  with  steam  by  the  locomotive.  The  chains  rest  on 
sills  on  top  of  the  car  on  which  the  crossties  are  piled  and  are 
used  to  carry  crossties  from  the  car  to  the  end  of  the  cantilever 
arm  or  vice  versa.  The  crossties  are  raised  above  the  chain 
by  short  sections  of  2-  by  4-inch  pieces  which  are  placed  on 
the  sills  parallel  to  the  chain.  The  rails  are  carried  on  bunks 
on  both  sides  of  the  machine.     When  track  is  being  taken  up, 


330  LOGGING 

the  machine  is  run  out  to  the  end  of  the  road,  the  rail  fastenings 
removed,  and  the  rails  pulled,  by  a  power  driven  cable,  over 
rollers  to  the  bunks  on  the  car.  The  crossties  are  then  picked 
up  and  placed  upon  the  endless  chain  on  the  cantilever  arm  which 
carries  them  to  the  rear  of  the  machine  where  they  are  stacked 
upon  the  2-  by  4-inch  timbers  on  top  of  the  sills.  As  loading 
progresses  additional  strips  are  placed  along  the  chains  until 
the  front  end  of  the  machine  is  reached.  In  track  laying  the  cross- 
ties  are  rolled  down  upon  the  endless  chain  and  carried  to  the 
end  of  the  cantilever  arm  where  they  are  placed  in  position  by 
the  crew.  The  rails  are  rolled  from  the  bunks  upon  rollers 
along  the  side  of  the  car  and  then  pushed  forward  where  they 
are  picked  up  by  means  of  rail  tongs  and  carried  forward  and 
dropped  upon  the  crossties.  When  the  rails  are  in  position,  the 
rail  fastenings  are  adjusted,  and  bridles  are  placed  on  the  rails  at 
intervals  of  7  or  8  feet  to  hold  them  upright  and  in  position  until 
the  track  layer  and  locomotive  have  passed.  Spiking  is  done 
behind  the  locomotive  since  more  speed  can  be  made  by  this 
method.  This  machine  can  be  operated  with  a  crew  of  eight 
men  but  a  crew  of  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  is  more  efficient. 

The  back-spiking  crew  is  followed  by  the  surfacing  gang  which 
levels  up  the  roadbed  with  ballast,  digs  or  opens  drainage  ditches 
alongside  of  the  track,  adjusts  the  gauge,  raises  the  outer  rails  on 
curves,  and  performs  any  work  necessary  to  put  the  road  in  a 
condition  for  operation.  On  main  lines  a  large  amount  of  sur- 
facing may  be  done,  but  on  spurs  it  is  limited. 

Roads  which  have  sharp  curves  must  have  the  gauge  widened 
to  reduce  the  frictional  resistance  of  the  wheels  against  the  rails. 
It  is  customary  to  widen  the  gauge  at  least  -jV'iiich  for  each  2| 
degrees  of  curvature  in  excess  of  5  degrees.  For  example,  the 
gauge  would  be  increased  ^-inch  for  a  20-degree  curve.  The 
extra  width  allowed  is  dependent  chiefly  on  the  width  of  the  car 
wheel  treads. 

The  centrifugal  force  of  a  train  under  speed  tends  to  force  the 
wheels  against  the  outer  rail.  This  tendency  increases  with 
speed  and  is  greater  on  a  sharp  curve  than  on  an  easy  one.  It 
is  overcome  by  elevating  the  outer  rail  and  lowering  the  inner 
one  and  also  by  coning  the  tread  of  the  wheels.  The  diagram 
(Fig.  Ill)  shows  the  customary  elevation  for  standard-gauge 
track  on  curves  up  to  40  degrees  and  for  speeds  up  to  30  miles 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 


331 


per  hour.  The  elevation  for  track  of  another  gauge  is  approxi- 
mately in  proportion  to  its  relation  to  the  standard-gauge. 

An  average  day's  work  for  surfacing  a  new  roadbed  when  about 
8  inches  of  dirt  are  used  as  ballast,  is  three  rail  lengths  per  man, 
while  on  swamp  work  when  from  12  to  15  inches  of  dirt  ballast 
are  used,  it  is  one  rail  length. 

Cost  of  Construction.  —  The  cost  of  construction  per  mile  on 
logging  railroads  varies  widely  even  in  a  given  region.     The  two 

Speed/MIles  per  Hour 
5  10  15  20  23  30 


\   \     V^  \         \ 


Fig.  111. 


Diagram  Showing  the  Customary  Elevation  of  the  Outer  Rail, 
in  Inches,  for  Various  Degrees  of  Curvature. 


factors  that  chiefly  influence  it  are  topography  and  the  character 
of  the  bottom  on  which  the  road  is  to  be  built. 

Construction  is  cheapest  in  the  flat  pine  forests  of  the  extreme 
southern  States,  where  a  minimum  of  grading  is  required.  On 
the  other  hand  the  rough  topography  of  some  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  country  often  requires  heavy  grading  work  and  high  trestles 
and  the  roads  must  be  built  more  carefully  for  transporting  the 
large  and  heavy  timber.  Swamps  such  as  are  found  in  the 
cypress  region  also  necessitate  a  heavy  expenditure  because 
the  main  roads  have  to  be  built  on  piling. 


332  LOGGING 

Loggers  in  all  sections  spend  from  60  to  90  cents  per  thousand 
feet  of  timber  hauled  for  the  construction  of  the  road,  from  20 
to  30  per  cent  of  which  is  expended  on  the  main  line.  The  cost 
of  main  line  logging  roads,  exclusive  of  rails  and  other  supplies, 
in  the  southern  pine  region  ranges  from  $1000  to  $2000  per 
mile,  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast  between  $3000  and  $6000.  Spur 
lines  in  the  South  cost  from  $300  to  $750  and  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  from  $2000  to  $3000  per  mile.  The  cost  of  a  main  line  in- 
cluding new  steel  rails,  angle  bars,  spikes,  crossties  and  supplies 
will  exceed  the  figures  given  by  from  $3000  to  $4000  per  mile. 

Maintenance-of-Way.  —  Section  crews  are  employed  to  keep 
the  road  ballasted  up,  maintain  the  gauge,  keep  the  drainage 
ditches  open,  replace  broken  or  decayed  tie's  and  to  make  any 
repairs  that  may  be  needed.  Maintenance  on  main  lines  requires 
one  man  per  mile,  and  on  spurs  one  man  for  2  miles  of  track. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    NOTE   TO    CHAPTER    XVIII 

Amburn,  W.  W.  :  Standardized  Timber  Bridge  for  Logging  Railroads. 
The  Timberman,  Feb.,  1919,  p.  46. 

Byrkit,  G.  M.:  Machine  for  Picking  up  Railroad  Track.  The  Timber- 
man,  August,  1912,  p.  48. 

Byrne,  Austin  T.:  Highway  Construction.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New 
York. 

Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army:  Engineer  Field  Manual,  Professional 
Papers,  No.  29,  Washington,  1917. 

Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army:  MiUtary  Railways,  Professional  Papers, 
No.  32,  Washington,  1917. 

Cowling,  H.  G.:  Standard  Frame  Trestles  for  Logging  Railroad.  The 
Timberman,  July,  1921,  pp.  34  and  36. 

Crosby,  Lloyd  R.:  Construction  of  Logging  Railroad  Tunnels.  The 
Timberman,  March,  1923,  pp.  34  and  35. 

Davis,  Minot:  Steam  Shovel  in  Logging  Railroad  Construction.  The 
Timberman,  Nov.,  1921,  pp.  66  and  68. 

Engineer's  Handbook.  Useful  Information  for  Practical  Men.  Com- 
piled for  E.  I.  duPont  de  Nemours  Powder  Company,  Wilmington,  Dela- 
ware, 1908. 

Fish,  J.  C.  L.:  Earthwork  Haul  and  Overhaul.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  Inc., 
New  York,  1913. 

Gillette,  H.  P.:  Earthworth  and  its  Cost.  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co., 
New  York,  1912. 

Gillette,  H.  P.:  Handbook  of  Clearing  and  Grubbing.  Clark  Book  Co., 
New  York,  1917. 

Gillette,  H.  P.:  Handbook  of  Cost  Data.  Myron  C.  Clark  Pub.  Co., 
Chicago,  1910. 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION  333 

Gillette,  H.  P.:    Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation.     McGraw-Hill  Book 

Co.,  New  York,  1916. 
Johnson,  J.  B.:  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying.     John  Wiley  and  Sons, 

New  York.     1901. 
KiNDELAN,  J.:  The  Trackman's  Helper,  Clark  Book  Co.,  New  York,  1900. 
Lamb,   Frank  H.:    Steam  Shovel  in  Logging  Road  Construction.     The 

Timberman,  Oct.,  1920,  pp.  65  and  68. 
Pope,  C.  R.:    Constructing  a  High  Pile  Bridge.     The  Timberman,  Feb., 

1915,  pp.  49  and  50. 
Powers,  Fred  W.:   Preventing  Track  Creeping  on  Grades.     The  Timber- 
man, Oct.,  1919,  p.  45. 
SoMERViLLE,  S.  S.:    Building  Logging  Railroads  with  a  Pile-driver.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  37-38. 
Stamm,  Samuel  A. :  A  LTnique  Logging  Railroad  Bridge.     The  Timberman, 

July,  1916,  p.  46. 
Tracy,  John  Clinton:  Plane  Surveying.     John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York. 

1908. 
Webb,  W.  L.  :    Railroad  Construction.     John  Wiley  and  Sons,  Inc.,  New 

York.     1917. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

INCLINES 

Loggers  in  mountainous  regions  often  find  it  necessary  to 
raise  or  lower  loaded  log  cars  on  grades  too  steep  for  the  operation 
of  locomotives  unless  switchbacks  are  installed.  One  western 
logger  states  that  the  ratio  of  track  required  for  inclines  as  com- 
pared to  switchbacks  is  1  to  5.  These  conditions  may  be  en- 
countered in  bringing  timber  over  a  ridge  from  one  valley  to 
another,  or  from  a  ridge  to  a  lower  level  on  which  the  logging 
railroad  is  located,  or  vice  versa.  Logging  inclines  are  often  used 
to  overcome  difficulties  of  this  character. 

Two  different  incline  systems  are  in  use,  namely,  the  one-way  in 
which  loaded  cars  are  lowered  in  one  operation  and  the  empty 
cars  later  drawn  up  to  the  top;  and  the  counterbalance  system 
in  which  the  empty  car  ascends  as  the  loaded  car  descends. 

The  roadbed  for  an  incline  does  not  require  as  strong  construc- 
tion as  a  railroad  because  there  is  no  pounding  action  such  as  is 
produced  by  a  locomotive.  An  uneven  grade  is  not  a  serious 
handicap  unless  there  are  portions  which  are  so  gentle  that 
cars  cannot  be  returned  to  the  foot  of  the  incline  by  gravity, 
in  which  case  a  trip  line  must  be  provided  which  will  pass  from 
the  hoisting  engine  through  a  block  at  the  foot  of  the  incline  and 
then  back  to  the  summit. 

Inclines  should  be  built  approximately  in  a  straight  line  be- 
cause greater  power  is  required  when  the  direction  of  pull  is 
changed  and  the  life  of  the  cable  is  shortened  when  it  passes 
over  rollers  at  curves.  However,  small  degrees  of  curvature  are 
permissible  if  rollers  are  placed  at  such  places  to  reduce  cable  wear. 
The  maximum  efficient  length  for  an  incline  seldom  exceeds  8000 
feet. 

When  loaded  cars  are  hauled  up  one  slope  and  dropped  down 
on  the  other  side,  the  distance  on  the  down-grade  should  not 
exceed  the  maximum  for  an  upgrade  haul. 

One-way  Vehicles.  —  These  may  have  one  or  two  cables,   the 
334 


INCLINES 


335 


former  being  most  frequently  used  on  short  lines  although  it 
is  sometimes  used  on  long  ones.  The  one-cahle  system  has 
a  one-drmn  hoisting  or  lowering  engine  placed  near  the  head 
of  the  incline,  by  which  the  cars  are  dropped  down  or  pulled 
up  the  grades.  It  sometimes  is  placed  at  the  summit  and 
is  used  to  raise  cars  up  to  the  top  of  the  incline  and  then 
lower  them  on  the  opposite  slope.  In  some  cases  logs  are 
carried  over  more  than  one  divide  by  using  two  or  more  rais- 
ing and  lowering  machines.  On  an  Oregon  operation^  where 
two  ridges  were  crossed  the  logs  were  first  drawn  up  a  15  per  cent 
incline  1500  feet  long,  and  then  lowered  down  a  20  per  cent  grade 
for  3000  feet.  At  the  base  of  the  latter  grade  the  cars  were 
picked  up  by  the  cable  from  a  machine  near  the  second  summit 


Second  Operation  Straw  Line  holds  Car 
Main  Line  attached  to  Rear  End  of  Car 

Straw  Line  from  Gypsy  Head 

First  Operation  Main  Line  hauls  Car 
to  Top  of  Incline 


Fig.  112.  —  An  Incline  System  used  to  transport  Timber  across  Two  Ridges. 

and  hauled  up  an  8  per  cent  grade  for  1000  feet,  and  then  lowered 
on  an  .'8  per  cent  grade  for  1500  feet.  The  engine  at  the  woods 
terminus  was  a  9-  by  10-inch  yarding  engine,  carrying  4500  feet  of 
f-inch  cable  which  passed  through  a  48-inch  sheave  block  at 
the  summit,  and  then  was  brought  back  to  the  foot  of  the  incline 
and  attached  to  the  draw  bar  of  the  logging  car.  The  car  was 
drawn  to  the  summit  of  the  first  incline  where  it  was  held 
by  a  small  line  from  the  donkey  which  was  attached  to  the 
rear  drawhead  of  the  car.  The  main  cable  was  then  transferred 
from  the  front  to  the  rear  drawhead,  the  small  cable  released  and  the 
car  lowered  to  the  foot  of  the  grade.  Here  it  was  picked  up  by  the 
second  engine  which  pulled  the  load  to  the  top  of  the  second  in- 
cline and  then  lowered  it  to  the  roadway.  The  actual  time  re- 
quired from  one  end  of  the  double  incline  to  the  other  was  about 
20  minutes,  a  round  trip  requiring  one  hour  including  loading 
and  unloading  the  incline  car,  which  was  a  standard  set  of  logging 
trucks  equipped  with  safety  bunks.  An  independent  brake 
control  was  pro\'ided  by  a  tender  car  made  from  a  single  set  of 
1  See  Fig.  112;  also  The  Timberman,  May,  1915,  p.  48A. 


336  LOGGING 

logging  trucks  upon  which  were  mounted  two  hand  brakes» 
The  tender  car  was  connected  by  chains  and  rods  to  the  logging 
car.  It  was  seldom  used  since  the  engineers  were  able  to  control  the 
speed  of  the  car  from  the  machine. 

The  loaded  car  weighed  approximately  20  tons  and  carried 
from  5000  to  7000  board  feet  of  timber. 

An  improvement  on  the  method  of  operating  similar  inclines 
suggested  by  a  logger  is  to  fasten  the  cable  around  the  center  of 
the  load  and  when  the  latter  has  nearly  reached  the  summit  to 
increase  the  speed  of  the  car  so  that  it  will  cross  the  divide  and 
drop  down  the  other  slope.  The  sheave  block  should  be  hung 
on  a  swivel  about  20  feet  above  the  center  of  the  track. 

A  two-cable  system^  was  developed  by  a  western  operator  to 
lower  timber  from  mountain  slopes  to  a  railroad  at  the  base, 
about  1200  feet  below.  Inclines  with  lateral  spurs  were  con- 
structed and  the  loaded  cars  brought  to  them  for  lowering. 
While  most  of  the  inclines  were  straight,  on  one  there  was  1200 
feet  of  track  on  a  12  degree  curve.  Power  for  lowering  the  cars 
was  provided  by  a  11-  by  13-inch  hoisting  engine  placed  at  the 
top  of  the  slope,  which  had  a  drum  capacity  of  12,000  feet  of 
If-inch  cable.  The  engine  was  mounted  on  a  sled  so  that  it 
could  be  moved  readily  under  its  own  power  from  one  set-up 
to  another. 

The  lowering  line  led  from  the  engine,  placed  on  the  left  of  the 
incline,  through  a  three-sheave  block  on  a  lowering  car,  and  then 
back  to  a  stump  near  the  engine  but  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
track.  The  lowering  car  had  a  steel  frame  supported  on  two 
single  trucks,  on  which  was  mounted  a  compound  lowering 
block. 

The  dead  section  of  the  lowering  line  rested  on  skids  placed 
along  the  track  and  at  right  angles  to  it.  The  moving  line  rested 
on  sheaves  along  the  side  of  the  track,  spaced  at  100  foot  intervals. 
On  the  inside  of  the  curves  the  cable  led  over  rollers,  while  on 
the  outside  of  curves  the  dead  line  was  held  in  place  by  brackets 
which  automatically  released  or  picked  up  the  line  when  the  car 
had  passed  a  given  point. 

The  "lowering"  car  pulled  the  empty  log  cars  from  the  base  of 
the  incline  to  one  of  the  lateral  spurs,  where  they  were  left  on 
a  siding,  and  were  later  taken  to  the  loading  poisk  by  a  geared 
^  See  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region,  by  W.  H.  Gibbons. 


INCLINES  337 

locomotive.  Loaded  cars  were  brought  out  from  the  lateral 
spurs  by  a  locomotive  and  placed  on  a  siding  near  the  incline. 
The  lowering  car  was  then  run  in  on  the  switch  and  coupled 
to  the  loaded  cars,  which  were  then  pulled  out  upon  the  incline 
and  lowered.  Two  or  three  loaded  or  six  empty  cars  were 
handled  at  one  time.  This  system  has  proved  satisfactory  on 
inclines  4800  feet  long  and  with  maximum  grades  of  30  per  cent, 
the  machine  lowering  40  cars,  dail}^,  under  these  conditions. 

Counterbalanced  Inclines.  —  These  are  designed  so  that  as 
a  loaded  car  descends  an  empty  one  ascends.  There  may  be 
a  single  track  from  the  base  to  a  point  about  midway  of  the 
incline  where  a  passing  switch  is  installed  and  single  or  double 
tracks  then  continued  to  the  summit.  Sometimes  triple  rails 
are  used  with  a  passing  switch  at  the  midway  point.  The 
loaded  and  empty  cars  then  use  the  middle  rail  in  common. 
A  counterbalanced  incline  built  in  California  was  8000  feet  long 
and  had  a  drop  of  3100  feet,  the  grades  running  from  10  to  78 
per  cent  with  an  average  of  45  per  cent.  The  lowering  engine 
was  equipped  with  a  single  drum  driven  by  14-  by  14-inch  engines, 
geared  to  a  ratio  of  12  to  1,  and  providing  a  car  speed  of  600 
feet  per  minute.  Two  independent  sets  of  friction  brakes  were 
provided.  The  6  by  19  plow  steel  cable  was  1|  inches  in 
diameter  and  was  held  down  on  depressions  by  sheaves  supported 
on  trestle  work  16  feet  above  the  ground  level.  Sheaves  also 
were  placed  in  the  track  where  the  cable  might  drag  on  the  ground 
in  order  to  keep  it  out  of  the  dirt. 

A  special  design  of  car  holding  5000  board  feet  was  used  which 
had  a  steel  Inilk  head  5  feet  high  at  the  front  end  to  prevent  the 
logs  from  sliding  forward  on  the  car.  The  time  required  to  lower 
a  car  varied  from  10  to  12  minutes  including  the  time  necessary 
to  attach  the  cable  at  the  summit  and  detach  it  at  the  foot  of 
the  incline. 

There  are  several  devices,  known  as  "snubbing  machines," 
used  for  lowering  logs  down  an  inclined  track. 

The  chief  feature  of  the  friction-brake  snubbing  machine  is 
a  heavy  frame,  carrying  a  large  drum  on  which  is  wound  the 
cable  that  holds  the  loaded  cars  in  check.  The  speed  of  the  cars 
is  regulated  by  means  of  heavy  band  brakes  placed  on  flanges 
attached  on  either  side  of  the  drum. 

The  haul  cable  is  returned  to  the  top  of  the  incline  by  various 


338 


LOGGING 


devices.  One  type  has  a  small  drum  placed  on  one  end  of  the 
main  drum  shaft  and  a  trip  line  from  a  yarding  engine  wrapped 
two  or  three  times  around  it.  When  the  main  cable  is  to  be 
wound  up,  the  trip  line  is  tightened  by  sheave  pulleys,  and,  as  it 
is  wound  in,  the  main  drum  is  rotated. 

Another  method  is  to  use  a  donkey  engine  equipped  with 
a  large  drum  and  l|-inch  cable  with  the  cars  attached  to  the 
free  end.  The  speed  is  controlled  chiefly  through  the  car  brakes 
supplemented  by  friction  brakes  on  the  drum.  Empties  are 
brought  to  the  head  of  the  incline  by  winding  in  the  main  cable. 


Fig.  113.  —  A  Hydraulic  Snubbing   Machine,     a,  side  view,     b,  top  view. 

Hydraulic  machines,^  of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  113a  and  6, 
have  been  used  in  the  Northwest  to  control  the  speed  of  cars 
lowered  on  inclines. 

The  water  cylinders  (K)  are  closed  at  both  ends  and  are  con- 
nected with  the  pipe  (L)  which  has  a  plug  valve  (M)  near  the 
middle.  When  (ilf)  is  closed  the  water  is  confined  and  holds  the 
pistons  (H)  rigidly  in  place.  Opening  the  valve  (ilf)  allows 
the  water  to  pass  alternately  from  one  end  of  the  cylinder  to  the 
other,  the  speed  being  governed  by  the  extent  to  which  the  valve 
1  See  The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  October,  1909,  p.  51. 


INCLINES  339 

is  opened.  The  controlling  levers  are  so  arranged  that  the  valves 
(M)  can  only  be  opened  and  closed  gradually,  thus  avoiding 
heavy  shocks  on  the  cable.  In  addition  to  the  hydraulic  cylinder 
brakes  the  machine  is  equipped  with  emergency  brake  bands  and 
wooden  friction  blocks.  The  cable  and  empty  cars  are  returned 
to  the  head  of  the  incline  by  an  auxiliary  steam-driven  engine. 

A  snubbing  device  of  the  above  character  was  operated  on  a 
4500-foot  incline  on  which  there  was  a  difference  of  1300  feet 
elevation.  The  grade  on  a  portion  of  the  road  was  50  per  cent 
and  averaged  30  per  cent  for  the  entire  distance. 

One  car  holding  6000  feet  log  scale,  a  total  weight  of  about 
20  tons,  was  lowered  with  a  1-inch  plow  steel  cable.  A  greater 
number  of  cars  could  have  been  handled  by  increasing  the  size 
of  the  cable,  but  since  the  daily  requirements  were  only  30,000 
board  feet,  this  was  unnecessary. 

In  a  western  operation,  which  had  a  20  per  cent  grade  near 
the  end  of  its  logging  railroad,  the  problem  of  lowering  cars  was 
solved  in  the  following  manner:  A  track  was  built  up  the  slope 
from  the  main  line  to  a  bench  on  which  a  yarding  engine  was 
placed  both  for  skidding  logs  and  loading  cars.  A  |-inch  cable 
was  laid  along  the  track  from  the  bottom  of  the  incline  to  the  top 
where  it  was  passed  through  a  block  in  the  rear  of  the  yarding 
engine  and  then  carried  down  the  track  to  the  starting  point. 
One  end  of  the  cable  was  attached  to  the  forward  end  of  the 
empty  cars,  and  the  other  end  to  the  drawhead  on  a  locomotive 
standing  on  a  parallel  track  beside  the  empty  cars.  The  cars 
were  pulled  up  the  incline  by  running  the  locomotive  on  the 
main  line  toward  the  mill  which  hauled  the  empty  cars  from 
the  parallel  track  to  the  main  incline  track  and  then  to  the  summit. 
Signals  for  starting  and  stopping  were  given  by  blasts  on 
the  whistles  of  the  locomotive  and  the  yarding  engine.  The 
speed  of  descending  cars  was  controlled  by  the  locomotive  as  it 
slowly  backed  toward  the  base  of  the  hill. 

Safety  switches  were  installed  both  at  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  incline  so  that  the  cars  passing  up  or  down  could  be  shunted 
from  the  main  track  to  a  siding  before  they  would  meet  other 
cars  or  the  locomotive. 

Two  loaded  cars  were  handled  at  one  time,  the  locomotive 
placing  two  empties  at  the  head  of  the  incline  and  then  taking 
the  loaded  cars  to  the  mill.  This  arrangement  resulted  in  a 
minimum  loss  of  time  for  the  train  crews. 


340  LOGGING 

Dudley.  —  Formerly  when  it  was  not  possible  to  build  a  straight 
track,  and  the  length  of  incline  exceeded  I-2  miles,  a  special  form  of 
traction  device,  called  a  "Dudley"  or  "Dudler,"  was  used.  It 
was  made  to  operate  on  ascending  or  descending  grades  and 
either  to  drag  logs  over  the  ties  or  to  haul  them  on  cars. 

The  Dudley  was  a  traction  device  with  steam  or  gasoline 
power  mounted  on  trucks.  It  was  moved  along  the  track  by 
means  of  a  cable  wound  several  times  around  a  bull  drum  on  the 
machine.  The  cable  was  stationary  and  the  ends  were  attached 
to  stumps  or  trees  at  the  upper  and  lower  terminals.  When 
the  drum  was  rotated  the  machine  warped  itself  up  or  down  the 
incline.  Such  devices  are  rarely  used  today,  some  form  of  one- 
way or  counterbalanced  incline  being  substituted  for  it. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   TO    CHAPTER    XIX 

Badgett,  C.  S.:  Equipment  for  Incline  Logging.  American  Lumber- 
man, Oct.  8,  1921,  p.  54. 

Clark,  A.  W.:  Overcoming  Grades  too  Steep  for  Geared  Locomotives. 
The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  p.  33. 

Holmes,  H.  P.:  Lowering  Logs  on  Steep  Grades.  The  Timberman, 
Sept.,  1914,  pp.  65  and  66. 

MacLafferty.,T.  H.:  Handhng  Logging  Trains  on  Excessive  Grades.  The 
Timberman,  July,  1911,  p.  44. 

McGiLLicuDDY,  B.  H.:  Lowering  Systems  versus  Switchbacks.  The 
Timberman,  Nov.  1921,  pp.  48  and  49. 

Nestos,  R.  R.:  Aerial  Snubbing  Device.  The  Timberman,  August,  1912, 
p.  49. 

O'GoRMAN,  J.  S.:  Logging  Steep  Ground  with  Inclines.  The  Timberman, 
Nov.  1921,  pp.  46  and  47. 

Paulsen,  E.  M.:  Inclines  versus  Swing  Machines.  The  Timberman, 
March,  1922,  p.  57. 

Potter,  E.  O.;  Utilization  of  the  Cable  Locomotive.  The  Timberman, 
August,  1909,  p.  34. 

Sessoms,  H.  W.  :  Proposed  Plan  for  Steep  Hillside  Logging.  The  Timber- 
man, Oct.  1913,  pp.  74  and  75. 

Sessoms,  H.  W.:  Lowering  Logs  on  Steep  Grades.  The  Timberman,  Sept., 
1914,  pp.  32  and  32A. 

Sessoms,  H.  W.:  Lowering  Systems  and  Inclines.  The  Timberman,  Nov., 
1922,  pp.  72,  74  and  76. 

Wentworth,  G.  K.:  Lowering  Logs  on  a  3200-foot  Incline.  The  Timber- 
man, August,  1909,  p.  34. 

Williams,  Asa  S.:  Logging  by  Steam.  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  pp. 
1^21. 


CHAPTER  XX 
MOTIVE   POWER   AND   ROLLING   STOCK 

A.      LOCOMOTIVES 

There  are  two  types  of  locomotives;   namely,  rod  and  geared. 

Rod  Locomotives.  —  These  have  the  power  transmitted  from 
the  cylinders  to  the  drivers  b}^  means  of  a  connecting  rod.  They 
have  a  longer  wheel-base  than  geared  locomotives,  consequently 
they  cannot  take  as  sharp  curves,  but  are  the  best  type  for  a 
smooth,  well-maintained  road  of  easy  grade,  and  because  of  their 
speed  are  especially  serviceable  for  main-line  engines  when  the 
haul  exceeds  7  or  8  miles. 

Those  used  for  logging  purposes  range  in  weight  from  20  to 
150  tons.  Saddle-tank  locomotives  of  from  20  to  35  tons'  weight 
are  sometimes  used  on  spur  tracks,  and  are  more  efficient  for  their 
size  than  types  with  a  tender  because  there  is  less  dead  weight 
for  the  engine  to  carry.  For  main-line  work  locomotives  of  40 
tons  or  more  are  in  general  use. 

A  special  form  of  rod  locomotive,  known  as  the  Mallet  Arti- 
culated Locomotive,  is  used  on  some  main  line  logging  roads 
that  have  sharp  curves.  It  has  two  sets  of  engines  mounted 
under  the  boilers,  each  connected  to  independent  groups  of 
driving  wheels.  The  rear  engine  is  fixed  rigidly  to  the  boiler 
like  the  regular  pattern  of  rod  locomotive.  The  forward  engine 
and  driving  wheels  are  so  attached  to  the  boiler  that  the  truck 
may  have  a  lateral  motion  when  taking  curves.  This  truck  is 
connected  to  the  rear  engine  by  means  of  a  radial  draw-bar  and 
steam  is  transmitted  to  the  cylinders  on  the  front  truck 
through  an  articulated  pipe.  The  forward  pony  truck  is  pivoted 
and  may  swing  from  side  to  side,  independently  of  the  trucks 
bearing  the  engines.  The  cylinders  are  single  or  compound 
expansion,  and  the  exhaust  steam  of  the  rear  engine  is  used  in 
the  cylinders  of  the  forward  engine,  thus  effecting  a  saving  in  fuel. 

The  advantages  of  this  type  of  engine  are  that  the  wheel  base 
341 


342  LOGGING 

is  materiallj'  shortened  1)}^  having  two  separate  sets  of  drivers 
which  permit  the  use  of  a  heavy  rod  locomotive  on  a  road  having 
curves  that  are  too  sharp  for  the  r(^gular  type  of  rod  engine  of 
the  same  weight;  and  it  is  so  constructed  that  live  steam  may 
be  used  in  the  cylinders  of  both  engines  to  secure  greater  power 
to  start  loads,  which  increases  the  hauling  power  of  the  loco- 
motive in  comparison  with  that  of  an  ordinary  rod  engine  of  the 
same  weight,  since  an  engine  can  keep  in  motion  a  greater  load 
that  it  can  start.  Another  feature  claimed  for  this  locomotive 
is  that  the  drivers  slip  less  than  on  other  types  of  rod  engines 
because  the  forward  cylinders  depend  on  the  rear  ones  for  steam, 
and  should  the  drivers  connected  to  the  latter  slip,  the  exhaust 
would  fill  the  feed  pipe  of  the  forward  cylinders  faster  than  it 
could  be  relieved  and  the  resultant  back  pressure  on  the  high- 
pressure  pistons  would  reduce  the  speed  and  prevent  further  slip- 
ping. 

Locomotives  of  this  tj^pe,  ranging  in  weight  from  81  to  121 
tons,  are  in  use  on  logging  roads  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  The 
minimum  weight  in  which  they  are  built  is  50  tons.  One  weigh- 
ing 121  tons  is  in  operation  on  the  Pacific  Coast  on  a  road  having 
35-degree  curves  and  8  per  cent  grades. ^ 

Geared  Locomotives.  —  The  first  geared  locomotive  was  con- 
structed about  1885  by  E.  E.  Shay,  a  Michigan  logger,  and  this 
locomotive,  with  modifications  and  improvements,  is  in  extensive 
use  to-day.  Several  forms  of  geared  locomotives  other  than 
the  Shay  are  now  on  the  market. 

The  objects  sought  in  geared  locomotives  are  to  secure  a 
maximum  amount  of  tractive  force  with  a  minimum  total  weight, 
a  short  truck  base  that  will  enable  the  engine  to  take  sharp  curves 
with  ease,  and  a  form  of  truck  that  will  adjust  itself  readily  to 
an  uneven  track.  These  ends  are  accomplished  by  making  every 
wheel  under  the  engine  and  tender  a  driving  wheel;  by  trans- 
mitting power  to  the  driving  wheels  through  a  series  of  bevel 
gears  that  bear  a  ratio  to  each  other  of  from  2  to  1  or  from  2\ 
to  1;  and  by  the  use  of  swivel  trucks  on  which  the  drivers  are 
arranged  in  pairs  and  connected,  one  with  another,  by  means  of 
an  articulated  driving  rod.  The  weight  is  distributed  over  a 
long  wheel  base  which  permits  the  use  of  a  smaller  rail,  fewer 

1  The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  p  63. 


MOTIVE  POWER  AND   ROLLING   STOCK  343 

ties,  lighter  bridges  and  a  poorer  track  than  for  a  rod  locomotive 
of  the  same  weight. 

On  poor  track  where  a  speed  of  from  6  to  12  miles  per  hour, 
only,  is  possible,  geared  locomotives  are  preferable  to  rod  because 
they  have  large  fire  boxes,  short  stroke  engines,  and  a  high  piston 
speed.  The  slow  cylinder  speed  of  rod  engines  causes  defective 
draft  on  grades. 

There  are  two  types  of  geared  locomotives,  namely  the  center 
shaft  and  the  side  shaft. 

(1)  Center  shaft.  There  are  several  patterns  on  the  market, 
the  ones  most  commonly  used  being  the  Climax  and  the  Heisler. 


Fig.  114.  —  A  Climax  Geared  Locomotive. 

The  Climax  is  mounted  either  on  two  or  three  four-wheel 
swivel  trucks.  When  two  trucks  are  used,  one  is  placed  under 
the  forward  and  one  under  the  rear  end  of  the  locomotive.  When 
three  trucks  are  used,  two  are  placed  under  the  engine  proper 
and  one  under  the  tender.  The  boiler  is  the  horizontal  locomo- 
tive type,  mounted  on  a  steel  channel  frame,  reinforced  with 
truss  rods.  Two  single-cylinder  engines  are  attached  to  the 
frame,  one  on  each  side  of  the  boiler,  and  transmit  the  power 
directly  to  a  heavy  crank  shaft,  placed  under  the  boiler  and  at 
right  angles  to  it.  This  shaft  is  held  in  position  by  a  frame  fixed 
to  the  boiler,  and  power  from  the  shaft  is  transmitted  by  gearing 
to  a  central  articulated  line  shaft  which  passes  to  the  forward 
and  rear  trucks  and  runs  on  bearings  on  top  of  each  truck  axle. 


344  LOGGING 

Pinions  fitted  on  this  shaft  mesh  into  gears  on  each  axle  and 
thus  transmit  power  to  the  driving  wheels. 

Locomotives  of  this  class  are  built  in  weights  ranging  from 
18  to  75  tons.  Those  of  from  18  to  60  tons  weight  have  eight 
drivers  and  those  of  from  65  to  75  tons  weight  have  twelve 
drivers. 

A  Climax  locomotive  with  an  upright  engine  and  a  "T"  boiler 
is  built  in  15-  and  18-ton  weights.     The  frame  of  heavy  timbers 


Fig.  115.  —  A  Heisler  Geared  Locomotive. 

is  supported  at  each  end  by  a  pair  of  swivel  trucks.  Two  ver- 
tical high-speed,  double-acting  engines  are  located  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  main  frame  and  are  directly  connected  to  a  shaft 
which  carries  two  spur  gears  of  different  sizes,  which  mesh  into 
two  main  gears  on  the  center  driving  shaft.  These  provide  a 
high  or  low  speed  as  required.  A  center  shaft  transmits  power 
to  the  driving  wheels  in  the  same  manner  as  the  horizontal  style 
of  locomotive  previously  described.  This  locomotive  is  used  on 
stringer  and  light  steel  roads. 

The  Heisler  locomotive  is  built  in  weights  ranging  from  18 
to  75  tons.  The  locomotive  and  tender  are  carried  on  a  heavy 
steel  frame  mounted  on  two  pairs  of  swivel  trucks,  one  set  being 


MOTIVE  POWER  AND  ROLLING  STOCK 


345 


placed  under  the  forward  end  of  the  locomotive  and  the  other 
under  the  tender. 

Power  is  furnished  by  two  single-cylinder  engines  attached  to 
the  frame  one  on  each  side  of  the  boiler.  Each  engine  is  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  from  the  vertical  and  the  reciprocating 
parts  are  connected  directly  to  a  central  single-throw,  articu- 
lated driving  shaft. 

Spur  wheels  are  fitted  to  the  center  of  the  forward  and  the 
rear  axles  and  pinions  attached  to  each  end  of  the  driving  shaft 
mesh  into  them.     The  spur  wheels  and  pinions  are  enclosed  in 


A  Shay  Geared  Locomotive. 


a  tight  case  which  is  designed  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  grit  and 
other  foreign  substances. 

(2)  Side  Shaft.  —  There  are  two  makes  of  side  shaft  locomo- 
tives, namely,  the  Shay  and  the  Willamette,  both  of  which  are 
similar  in  design.  The  former,  built  in  weights  ranging  from  13 
to  150  tons,  has  been  on  the  market  for  many  years,  while  the 
latter  has  only  recently  been  offered  for  sale. 

The  frame  of  the  Shay  is  made  of  heavy  steel  "I"  beams 
braced  with  trusses,  and  is  supported  on  from  two  to  four  pairs 
of  four-wheeled  swivel  trucks.  Locomotives  weighing  55  tons 
and  less  have  two  trucks;  those  from  65  to  105  tons,  inclusive, 
three  trucks;  and  the  150-ton  locomotives,  four  trucks.  The 
third  and  fourth  trucks  on  locomotives  weighing  from  65  to 
150  tons  are  used  to  carry  the  tender. 

The  boiler  is  of  the  horizontal  locomotive  type  with  extra 
large  fire  box  and  steam  space.  The  engines  are  of  the  vertical 
type  and  are  attached  to  the  boiler  plate  on  the  right-hand  side 
just  in  front  of  the  cab.  Locomotives  of  from  13  to  20  tons 
weight  are  equipped  with  two  cylinders,  and  those  of  greater 


346  LOGGING 

weight  with  three  cylinders,  placed  side  by  side  and  directly 
connected  120  degrees  apart  to  a  driving  rod  which  is  supported 
on  a  hea\^  bearing  attached  to  the  boiler.  The  driving  rod  is 
broken  both  with  universal  joints  and  also  with  two  slip  joints 
to  permit  either  an  increase,  or  a  decrease  in  the  length  when 
passing  around  curves.  The  right-hand  wheels  on  each  truck 
are  fitted  with  gear  rims  into  which  the  pinions  mesh  which  furnish 
the  driving  power  for  the  locomotive. 

HAULING    ABILITY    OF   LOCOMOTIVES 

The  hauling  ability  of  a  given  locomotive  depends  largely  on 
(1)  the  tractive  force,  (2)  the  resistance  of  the  load  to  gravity, 
and  (3)  the  frictional  resistance. 

Tractive  Force.  —  The  tractive  force  of  a  locomotive,  some- 
times improperly  called  the  "draw-bar  pull,"  is  the  power  pos- 
sessed by  a  locomotive  for  pulling  a  train,  including  the  weight 
of  the  locomotive  itself  and  its  tender.  If  one  end  of  a  rope  is 
passed  over  a  pulley  and  fastened  to  a  weight  hanging  in  a  pit, 
and  the  other  end  is  attached  to  a  locomotive  running  on  a  straight 
level  track  without  regard  to  speed,  the  tractive  force  of  the  loco- 
motive will  be  represented  approximately  by  the  amount  of  weight 
the  locomotive  can  lift.  Tractive  force  increases  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  area  of  piston  heads,  length  of  stroke  and  steam 
pressure  in  the  cylinders,  and  decreases  directly  as  the  diameter 
of  the  driving  wheels  increases. 

Tractive  force  is  dependent  on  the  weight  of  the  locomotive  on 
its  driving  wheels  because  it  adheres  to  the  rail  only  by  the 
friction  developed  between  these  wheels  and  the  rail  head,  and 
the  resistance  to  slipping  increases  with  the  weight  on  the  driving 
wheels.  The  weight  on  wheels  other  than  drivers  has  no  effect 
on  the  tractive  force.  If  the  engine  is  too  light  in  proportion 
to  its  power  it  will  be  unable  to  hold  itself  to  the  rail  and  exert  a 
strong  pull,  while  on  the  other  hand  if  the  weight  of  the  locomo- 
tive is  too  great  in  comparison  to  its  power,  it  will  not  haul 
maximum  loads  because  of  the  excess  weight  in  itself  that  must 
be  moved.  In  industrial  locomotives  the  economical  ratio 
between  the  weight  on  the  drivers  and  the  tractive  force  ranges 
from  4|  to  1  to  5  to  1;  i.e.,  the  tractive  force  in  pounds  is  from 
23  to  20  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  on  the  drivers. 

The  usual  formula  employed  for  determining  the  tractive  force 


MOTIVE  POWER  AND   ROLLING  STOCK  347 

of   single-expansion   rod   locomotives   with   a   piston   speed   not 
exceeding  200  feet  per  minute  is  as  follows: 
d^XLX  .85  p, 
D 
when     T  represents  the  tractive  force, 

d  represents  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  in  inches, 
L  represents  the  length  of  piston  stroke  in  inches, 
.85  p  represents  85  per  cent  of  the  boiler  pressure,^ 
D  represents  the  diameter  of  the  driving  wheel  in  inches. 

As  the  speed  increases  the  tractive  force  decreases  because  the 
mean  effective  pressure  in  the  cylinders  falls  and  friction  also 
increases. 

Resistance  to  Gravity.  —  The  resistance  to  gravity  increases  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  grade  and  is  20  pounds  per  ton  of  2000 
pounds  for  each  1  per  cent  rise  in  grade;  e.g.,  for  a  0.5  per  cent 
grade  it  is  10  pounds  per  ton  and  for  a  4  per  cent  grade  it  is  80 
pounds  per  ton. 

Resistance  due  to  Friction.  —  The  resistance  due  to  friction 
varies  with  the  character  and  condition  of  the  roadbed  and  the 
rolling  stock. 

The  resistance  of  the  flange  friction  of  wooden  rails  is  about 
twice  that  of  steel  rails.  Poorly  laid  or  crooked  rails  and  over- 
loading increase  the  rolling  friction,  which  is  also  greater  in  cold 
weather  than  in  warm  and  greater  for  emptj^  cars  than  for  loaded 
ones. 

Logging  cars  of  good  construction,  and  with  well-oiled  bearings 
should  have  a  frictional  resistance  of  from  20  to  25  pounds  per 
ton  of  weight  handled. 

The  frictional  resistance  on  curves  s  extremely  variable  be- 
cause it  is  governed  by  numerous  factors,  among  which  are  the 
degree  of  curvature,  length  of  the  wheel  base  of  locomotives  and 
cars,  elevation  of  the  outer  rail,  speed,  condition  of  rolling  stock 
and  track,  length  of  train,  and  length  of  the  curved  section. 
Frictional  resistance  is  partially  overcome  by  increasing  the 
width  of  track  on  curves  yV  inch  for  each  2h  degrees  of  curvature, 
and  also  by  coning  the  face  of  the  car  wheels  so  that  the  greatest 
diameter  is  next  the  flange.     When  crowded  against  the  rail  the 

1  This  has  been  found  by  practical  test  to  be  the  average  effective  pressure 
in  the  cylinder. 


348  LOGGING 

outer  wheels  will  then  travel  farther,  per  revolution  of  the  axle, 
than  those  on  the  inner  side  of  the  curve.  Friction  is  also  de- 
veloped because  the  rigid  attachment  of  the  axles  to  the  truck 
frame  does  not  permit  them  to  assume  a  radial  position  with 
reference  to  the  curve.  On  a  6-driver  rod  locomotive  the  long 
wheel  base  is  partially  overcome  by  making  the  center  drivers 
flangeless.  On  very  sharp  curves  it  is  customary  to  lay  extra 
rails  inside  of  the  outer  rail  and  outside  of  the  inner  rail  to  pro- 
vide a  support  for  the  flangeless  drivers.  In  determining  the 
amount  of  frictional  resistance  due  to  curves  it  is  the  general 
rule  to  assume  the  resistance  for  standard  gauge  to  be  |  pound 
per  ton  per  degree.  If  the  wheel  base  is  the  same,  curve  resist- 
ance in  other  gauges  is  about  in  proportion  to  the  relation  of 
the  gauges. 

Calculation  of  Hauling  Capacity.  —  The  hauling  capacity  of  a 
locomotive  in  tons  of  2000  pounds  is  determined  by  dividing 
the  tragtiye  force  of  the  locomotive  by  the  sum  of  the  resistances 
due  to  gravity^Jrolling  friction,  and  curve  resistance,  and  then 
deduct  from  this  result  the  weighf^f  the  locomotive  and  tender. 
This  gives  the  tonnag'6~tt[e"tocomotiv(r~can  Iiaul,  including  the 
weight  of  the  cars. 

The  estimated  hauling  capacity  of  locomotives  of  given  weights 
and  types  may  be  found  in  the  catalogues  of  the  manufacturers. 

The  following  figures  were  secured  from  logging  operations. 
On  a  24-  degree  curve  and  on  a  3.5  per  cent  grade,  two  40-ton 
Shay  engines  have  hauled  six  loaded  flat  cars^  containing  42,000 
])oard  feet,  while  the  same  locomotives  have  hauled  eleven  cars, 
77,000  board  feet,  around  32-degree  curves  and  up  3  per  cent  grades. 
A  60-ton  Shay  on  the  same  operation  hauled  five  cars,  35,000 
board  feet,  over  a  road  having  24-degree  curves  and  3.5  per 
cent  grades,  and  eight  or  nine  cars,  of  7000  feet  capacity  each, 
over  a  32-degree  curve  and  a  3  per  cent  grade.  An  18-ton  Shay, 
operated  on  a  road  4  miles  long  and  having  grades  ranging  from 
0  to  8  per  cent,  and  with  one  47-degree  curve  handled,  daily, 
150,000  board  feet.'^  A  50-ton  saddle-tank  rod  locomotive  oper- 
ated on  a  road  having  maximum  grades  of  2  per  cent  and  curves 
of  30  degrees  has  handled  eight  loaded  skeleton  cars. 

^  Length  41  feet;   weight  of  each  car  27,000  pounds. 
2  The  Timberman,  September,  1910. 


MOTIVE  POWER  AND   ROLLING  STOCK  349 

FUEL   FOR   LOCOMOTIVES 

The  fuel  used  on  logging  locomotives  may  be  wood,  coal,  or 
crude  petroleum. 

Wood  is  frequently  used  in  regions  where  coal  and  fuel  oil 
are  expensive,  however,  it  has  several  disadvantages. 

(1)  There  is  danger  from  forest  fires  during  the  dry  season 
because  sparks  are  thrown  for  long  distances.  A  high  per  cent 
of  the  forest  fires  on  logging  operations  start  along  the  railroad. 

(2)  There  is  a  large  bulk  of  material  to  be  handled.  It 
requires  twice  the  amount  of  wood  as  compared  to  average 
l)ituminous  coal  to  secure  equal  steaming  results,  and  the  space 
occupied  by  the  fuel  on  the  tender  is  about  five  times  as  great. 
Train  crews  spend  much  time  daily  in  taking  on  wood  which 
involves  a  time  loss  both  for  the  train  crew  and  the  locomotive. 

(3)  When  pitchy  woods  are  used  it  is  impossible  to  maintain 
an  even  heat,  because  the  resinous  matters  are  driven  off  first 
and  the  burning  gas  creates  an  intense  heat  for  a  short  period, 
but  before  the  wood  has  been  consumed  sufficiently  to  permit  a 
new  supply  to  be  fed  into  the  fire  box,  the  temperature  falls 
markedly.  This  alternate  rising  and  falling  of  temperature 
causes  a  constant  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  fire  box  and 
tube  metal  and  the  tubes  soon  become  leaky. 

(4)  A  skillful  fireman  is  required  to  handle  a  wood  fire  so  that 
a  sufficient  amount  of  steam  may  be  available  at  all  tunes,  es- 
pecially on  steep  grades. 

Bituminous  coal  is  preferred  to  wood  on  logging  roads  where 
it  can  be  secured  at  a  reasonable  price,  although  it  is  fully  as 
dangerous  from  the  standpoint  of  forest  fires.  It  is  greatly 
preferred  by  firemen  because  the  labor  is  not  so  exhausting  and 
a  more  even  fire  can  be  maintained. 

Fuel  oil  is  preferred  when  it  can  be  secured  at  a  cost  not  greatly 
in  excess  of  other  kinds  of  fuel. 

It  has  the  following  advantages  over  wood  and  coal : 

(1)  The  danger  from  forest  fires  is  eliminated. 

(2)  The  cost  of  handling  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  because 
the  oil  may  be  pumped  into  the  storage  tanks  on  the  tender  and 
a  sufficient  supply  carried  to  run  for  at  least  one-half  day.  The 
added  time  saved  in  taking  on  fuel  as  compared  to  wood  is  an 
important  item  during  the  course  of  a  month.     It  is  easier  to 


350  LOGGING 

transport  oil  in  supply  tanks  than  it  is  to  handle  an  equal  fuel 
value  in  wood  or  coal. 

(3)  A  saving  in  fuel  and  water  is  effected  on  heavy  grades 
and  the  hauling  ability  is  increased  because  the  steam  pressure 
can  be  held  at  a  desired  point  by  increasing  the  oil  feed  under 
the  boilers.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  this  with  wood  or  coal,  since 
merely  opening  and  closing  the  fire  box  has  a  marked  effect  on 
the  efficiency  of  the  locomotive  under  strained  conditions. 

(4)  A  man  can  learn  to  fire  an  oil-burning  locomotive  in  a 
few  days  because  no  especial  skill  is  required.  A  saving  in  wages 
is  therefore  effected. 

The  relative  value  of  the  three  kinds  of  fuel  is  approximately 
as  follows: 

One  ton  of  good  grade  bituminous  coal  is  equivalent  to  1^ 
cords  of  oak  wood,  or  from  2  to  2^  cords  of  softwood,  and  from 
130  to  190  gallons  of  crude  petroleum.^ 

The  choice  between  the  different  classes  of  fuel  is  made  either 
on  the  basis  of  forest  fire  danger  or  on  the  relative  cost.  Some 
roads  passing  through  the  forested  regions  use  oil  during  the  fire 
season  and  coal  during  other  periods. 

The  amount  of  fuel  consumed  daily  by  a  logging  locomotive 
is  extremely  variable,  depending  on  the  mileage  traveled,  the 
loads  hauled,  the  number  of  heavy  grades  traversed,  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  fireman.  A  45-ton  Shay  on  a  western  operation 
averaged  9  barrels  of  fuel  oil  daily,  while  a  37-ton  Shay  in  the 
same  region  burned  about  5  cords  of  softwood.  A  54-ton  rod 
engine  on  a  southern  pine  operation  averaged  4  cords  of  pine  knots 
per  day,  and  a  55-ton  Shay  on  the  same  operation  burned  from 
2  to  2^  tons  of  bituminous  coal. 

SPARK   ARRESTERS 

The  laws  of  most  forested  states  require  the  installation  of 
some  spark  arresting  device  in  wood-  and  coal-burning  logging 
locomotives.  Various  types  of  spark  arresters  are  in  use,  two 
of  which  are  here  described. 

1  Tests  on  the  Boston  and  Maine,  in  1903,  showed  that  from  130  to  140 
gallons  of  crude  petroleum  were  equal  to  a  short  ton  of  Pennsylvania  bitu- 
minous coal.  In  1910  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad  in 
the  Adirondacks  found  that  from  170  to  190  gallons  of  crude  oil  were  equal 
to  one  ton  of  bituminous  coal. 


MOTIVE  POWER  AND   ROLLING   STOCK 


351 


loia  Spark  Arrester.  —  This  arrester^  has  a  l-inch  mesh 
wire  screen  (A)  which  projects  above  a  cinder  pan  (B)  attached 
to  the  stack.  From  the  cinder  pan  outlet  pipes  (C)  lead  to  a 
receptacle  below.  A  light  metal  deflector  is  fixed  inside  the 
pan  to  guide  the  cinders  to  the  outlet  pipes.  The  sparks  arrested 
and  deflected  by  the  screen  are  dropped  into  the  receiving  pan. 
This  arrester  is  used  chiefly  for  wood-burning  logging  engines. 
Users  claim  that  the  engine  exhaust  will  keep  the  screen  clean 


Fig.  117.  —  The  Sequoia  Spark  Arre-ster. 

and  that  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  draft.     The  device  is  light, 
and  is  easily  put  on  and  removed. 

Radley -Hunter  Spark  Arrester.  —  This  is  an  effective  locomotive 
spark  arrester^  which  is  used  by  many  lumber  companies.  The 
smoke  and  cinders  pass  up  through  the  main  smoke  chamber 
(A),  striking  against  a  spiral  cone  (B)  which  gives  them  a  whirling 
motion,  and  large  cinders  are  thrown  outward  by  centrifugal 
force  against  the  perforated  screen  plate  (C).  This  plate  has 
openings  large  enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  cinders  into  the 
spark  chamber  (D).  Once  through  this  perforated  screen  plate 
the  cinders  are  beyond  the  line  of  active  draft,  and  by  their  weight 
fall  into  the  receptacle  (G)  from  which  they  are  removed  through 
the  cleaning-out  holes  (F).     The  lighter  cinders  which  are  not 

1  Fig.  117. 

2  Fig.  118. 


352 


LOGGING 


thrown  through  the  perforated  screen  plate  are  carried  by  the  draft 
against  the  fine  netting  (E).  In  firing  up,  the  natural  draft  through 
(A)  around  (B)  and  under  (E)  is  unobstructed  by  netting.  This 
has  two  advantages:  (1)  the  possibility  of  clogging  is  eliminated; 
(2)  there  is  an  easy,  free  draft  when  starting  the  fire.  This  stack 
acts  as  a  centrifugal  separator  which  prevents  the  emission  of  the 
larger  and  more  dangerous  sparks  and  only  allows  the  escape 
of  small,  light  sparks  which  are  dead 
by  the  time  they  leave  the  stack. 


Provision  is  made  for  watering 
locomotives  either  at  the  mill  or  at 
some  convenient  point  along  the 
railroad.  Water  may  be  supplied 
from  storage  tanks,  by  gravity  pipe 
lines  from  streams,  or  taken  direct 
from  the  streams  by  an  injector. 
The  amount  of  water  required  is  a 
variable  factor,  depending  on  the 
amount  of  work  performed  by  the 
Fig.  I18.-The  Radley-Hunter  ^^  .^^  ^^^  ^^^  efficiency  of  the  fire- 
Spark  Arrester.  '^ 

man. 

Trautwine  says  that  between  6  and  7  pounds  of  water  are 
evaporated  for  each  pound  of  average-grade  coal  that  is  con- 
sumed. On  a  basis  of  6|  pounds  of  water  (0.8  gallons)  per 
pound  of  coal,  1600  gallons  will  be  required  for  each  ton  of  coal, 
or  800  gallons  for  each  cord  of  wood  consumed.  Engines  which 
"blow-off"  at  frequent  intervals  will  require  more  water  than 
the  amount  mentioned. 

B.      CARS 

Logging  cars  are  subject  to  severe  usage  and  are  built  chiefly 
with  wooden  frames  so  that  repairs  can  be  made  at  the  loggers' 
machine  shop. 

NARROW    GAUGE 

When  light  rails  are  employed,  the  same  type  of  car  as  de- 
scribed for  the  stringer-road^   is  often  used.     When  a   35-  or 
40-pound  rail  is  in  use  a  heavier  car  is  desirable.     The  main 
1  See  page  282. 


MOTIVE  POWER  AND   ROLLING  STOCK  353 

features  are  similar  to  the  8-wheeled  stringer-road  truck  mentioned, 
but  they  are  built  heavier  to  secure  a  capacity  of  from  1500  to 
3000  board  feet. 

BROAD    GAUGE 

Three  types  of  cars  are  in  use  on  broad  gauge  roads,  namely, 
flat  cars,  skeleton  cars,  and  trucks. 

Flat  Cars.  —  These  are  chiefly  used  where  the  logs  are  hauled 
for  a  portion  of  the  distance  over  a  trunk-line  road.  The  latter 
usually  furnishes  the  cars,  keeps  them  in  repair,  and  provides 
motive  power  when  the  cars  are  on  its  line.  Payment  for  this 
service  is  made  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  cars  hauled,  the 
number  of  thousand  board  feet  of  logs  handled,  or  a  flat  rate 
per  train-mile. 

Logging  flat  cars  may  have  special  rails  laid  on  the  car  floor 
on  which  log  loaders  travel,  and  also  wooden  or  metal  bunks  to 
raise  the  logs  off  the  car  floor. 

Logs  are  held  on  flat  cars  by  stakes  or  chains. 

(1)  Short  Stakes.  —  These  are  made  near  the  loading  place 
by  a  stake  cutter,  and  are  inserted  in  the  stake  pockets  on  the 
car.  They  are  usually  thrown  away  at  the  unloading  point. 
If  bunk  loads  only  are  hauled  and  the  logs  do  not  occupy  the 
entire  floor  of  the  car,  the  bunks  are  equipped  with  adjustable 
"chock  blocks,"  or  dogs,  which  are  fitted  to  the  bunk  close  to 
the  log;  or  rough  blocks  or  small  logs  may  be  inserted  between 
the  logs  and  the  stakes  to  make  the  load  solid.  Where  a  top 
load  is  put  on  a  car,  the  logs  wedge  between  those  on  the  car 
floor  and  make  a  compact  load. 

(2)  Patent  Drop  Stakes.  —  These  project  from  2  to  3  feet 
above  the  car  floor  and  are  equipped  with  safety  trip  devices  for 
use  in  unloading.  The  logs  are  seldom  bound  with  chains  unless 
the  load  is  built  high. 

(3)  Long  Stakes.  —  For  carrying  high  loads,  cars  are  often 
equipped  with  stakes  from  5  to  6  feet  long,  which  are  cut  from 
saplings  or  made  from  sawed  material.  They  are  inserted  in  the 
stake  pockets,  and  after  the  greater  part  of  the  load  has  been 
placed  in  position  the  stakes  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  car  are 
bound  together  with  heavy  wire,  cable,  or  with  chains  to  prevent 
the  load  from  spreading  at  the  top.  The  remainder  of  the  load 
is  then  placed  on  top  of  the  binders.     Sapling  stakes  with  wire 


354  LOGGING 

binds  are  used  where  it  is  not  feasible  to  return  stakes  and  bind- 
ing material  to  the  forest  for  further  use. 

(4)  Chains. —  Logs  may  also  be  made  secure  with  binder  chains. 
After  the  main  body  of  the  load  has  been  placed  on  the  car, 
either  a  chain  is  passed  around  each  end  of  the  load,  or  one  chain 
may  be  passed  around  the  center.  In  the  latter  case  corner  bind 
chains  are  sometimes  used  if  the  car  is  not  provided  with  stakes. 
Each  set  consists  of  two  chains,  one  of  which  is  fastened  near  the 
center,  and  the  other  to  the  outer  end  of  the  bunk.  The  first 
chain  is  about  2  feet  long  and  the  free  end  terminates  in  a  ring, 
3  or  4  inches  in  diameter.  The  second  chain  is  several  feet  long 
and  its  free  end  terminates  in  a  grab  hook.  When  the  first  tier 
of  logs  is  loaded  on  the  car,  the  corner  binds  are  adjusted  on 
the  two  outside  logs.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing  the  long 
chain  over  the  log,  passing  the  grab  hook  and  chain  through  the 
ring  in  the  short  chain,  drawing  the  long  chain  taut  and  locking 
it  at  the  ring  with  the  grab  hook.  The  top  load  is  then  placed 
and  if  necessary  a  center  bind  placed  around  the  entire  load,  and 
one  or  more  logs  placed  on  top  of  the  chain  to  tighten  it. 

Flat  cars  are  from  24  to  41  feet  long.  Those  36  feet  and 
over  in  length,  will  carry  a  double  load  if  the  logs  do  not  exceed 
18  feet  in  length.  The  average  car  load,  for  medium-sized 
logs,  is  from  4000  to  6000  board  feet,  with  a  maximum  of  about 
10,000  feet. 

Skeleton  Cars.  —  This  type  of  car  has  two  pairs  of  4- 
wheeled  trucks  joined  together  by  a  heavy  wood  bolster.  A 
bunk  from  8|  to  10  feet  long  is  placed  directly  over  each  pair 
of  trucks.  Bunks  are  approximately  11  feet  apart  on  a  standard 
length  car,  but  cars  are  also  built  for  long  logs  with  bunk  centers 
up  to  33  feet  apart. 

Skeleton  car  bunks  are  equipped  with  a  variety  of  stakes  and 
"chocks"  for  preventing  the  bottom  tier  of  logs  from  rolling  off. 

One  end  of  each  bunk  is  often  provided  with  bunk  spikes, 
bolted  to  or  driven  into  the  wood  while  the  other  end  is  equipped 
with  a  chock  or  dog,  which  projects  above  the  bunk  when  in  use, 
but  which  may  be  dropped  below  the  bunk  level  by  means  of  a 
rod  operated  from  the  opposite  side  when  the  car  is  ready  to 
unload.  A  single  "  top  bind  "  chain  also  may  be  placed  around 
the  center  of  the  load. 

Cars  are  frequently  equipped  with  patent  drop  stakes,  which 


MOTIVE  POWER  AND   ROLLING  STOCK  355 

project  from  18  to  24  inches  above  the  bunk  and  are  held  in 
place  by  means  of  chains  or  bands,  which  may  be  loosened  by 
a  rod  manipulated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  car.  Drop  stakes 
are  useful  when  small-  and  medium-sized  logs  are  handled. 
They  also  obviate  the  use  of  binding  chains.  Some  operators 
use  round  stakes  without  attachments. 

In  handling  small-  and  medium-sized  logs  the  loads  are  some- 
times built  up  square  and  the  logs  are  held  by  several  sets  of 
binding  chains  and  often  by  a  top  bind  chain.     Logs  are  loaded 


Fig.  119.  —  A  Skeleton  Log  Car.     A  type  common  in  the  southern  yellow 
pine  forests. 

in  this  manner  by  power  loaders  and  a  falsework  is  used  on  the 
side  opposite  the  skidway,  against  which  the  loads  can  be  built 
and  held  in  position  until  binding  chains  can  be  placed. 

Skeleton  cars  are  equipped  either  with  hand  or  air  brakes, 
and  usually  with  pin  couplers.  They  range  in  weight  from 
6900  to  18,500  pounds  each  and  have  a  rated  carrying  capacity 
of  from  30,000  to  80,000  pounds.  They  will  carry  from  1600  to 
10,000  board  feet.  The  heavier '  weight  cars  are  employed  ex- 
clusively for  the  heavy  timber  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Skeleton  cars  combine  lightness  with  a  maximum  carrying 
capacity,  are  reasonable  in  initial  cost,  and  are  the  cheapest 
form  of  car  to  maintain. 

Trucks.  —  These  are  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  are  espe- 
cially adapted  to  long  logs.  They  have  two  pairs  of  wheels  on 
whi(;h  a  steel  frame  is  mounted.  A  steel  swivel  bunk,  9  or  10 
feet  long,  is  mounted  on  the  frame  above  and  midway  between 
the  pairs  of  wheels.     The  bunk  is  armed  either  with  steel  splices  or 


356 


LOGGING 


with  a  long  sharp  strip  of  steel  which  prevents  the  logs  from 
slipping  forward  or  backward. 

Trucks  are  equipped  with  hand  or  air  brakes;  pin  or  auto- 
matic couplers;  patent  stakes  or  "chock  blocks"  for  holding 
the  bunk  load  in  place;  and  chains  for  binding  the  load.  They 
are  built  in  a  high  and  a  low  type,  the  former  carrying  the  heav- 
iest loads.  They  are  in  common  use  on  roads  operated  by 
loggers  but  are  not  operated  on  trunk  lines,  which  will  not  haul 
them. 

Logs  of  approximately  equal  lengths  are  selected  for  a  given 
load,  and   a   truck   is  required  under  each  end  of  them.     The 


Fig.  120.  —  A  Log  Truck,  Western  Type. 

weight  of  the  logs  may  be  sufficient  to  hold  them  firmly  on  the 
bunk  without  the  use  of  chains,  however,  if  the  train  is  long 
and  the  strain  is  severe,  chains  are  used.  When  the  cars  are 
equipped  with  air  brakes,  extension  air-brake  hose  is  adjusted 
under  the  log  or  logs  between  the  two  trucks,  and  is  held  in 
place  by  chain  or  rope  attachments  placed  around  one  of  the 
logs. 

Trucks  weigh  from  10,600  to  13,500  pounds  each  and  have  a 
rated  carrying  capacity  of  from  50,000  to  75,000  pounds. 

In  practice  low  trucks  seldom  carry  more  than  5000  board  feet 
and  high  trucks  7500  feet. 


ROLLING    STOCK   AND    MOTIVE    POWER   EQUIPMENT 

The  number  of  logging  cars  required  on  a  given  operation  is 
dependent  on 

(1)  The  amount  of  timber  handled  daily. 

(2)  Capacity  of  the  individual  cars. 


MOTIVE   POWER  AND   ROLLING   STOCK  357 

(3)  The  average  number  of  cars  hauled  per  train  load. 

(4)  Manner  of  loading  and  handling  cars  in  the  woods.  When 
loading  is  concentrated  in  one  or  a  few  places,  fewer  cars  are  re- 
quired than  where  loading  is  done  at  various  points. 

(5)  Manner  of  handling  cars  at  the  destination.  If  the  train 
crew  unloads  the  cars  on  arrival  at  destination,  the  number  of 
cars  required  is  less  than  where  the  cars  are  left  to  be  unloaded 
while  the  engine  returns  to  the  woods  for  another  train  load. 

(6)  The  distance  that  the  cars  must  be  hauled.  On  long 
hauls  a  maximum  number  of  cars  are  on  the  road  to  or  from  the 
mill;  while  on  a  short  haul  the  number  is  less  because  of  the 
short  time  required  to  make  a  round  trip.  The  requirements 
for  a  large  operation  having  an  8-  or  10-mile  haul  cannot  be  met 
unless  the  number  of  log  cars  available  is  equal  to  twice  the 
number  of  loaded  cars  hauled  daily. 

The  equipment  used  by  a  large  white  pine  logging  company 
operating  14  miles  of  narrow-gauge  main  line  and  from  2  to  4 
miles  of  spurs,  and  delivering  daily  from  200,000  to  210,000 
board  feet  at  the  mill  was  as  follows: 

154  Skeleton  logging  cars  (24  feet  long,  bunks  8  feet  wide,  10  feet  center  to 

center),  3000  board  feet  capacity. 
2  Cabooses  (1  for  the  main  line  and  1  for  the  construction  train). 
2  Box  cars  for  hauling  supplies  to  camp. 
2  Flat  cars  for  the  construction  train. 
2  Water  tank  cars  for  hauling  the  camp  water  supply. 

Thirty-five  cars  were  loaded  at  skidways  each  morning  and 
each  afternoon,  making  a  total  of  seventy  cars  daily.  The  re- 
mainder were  on  the  road  or  in  the  repair  shop. 

Three  locomotives  only  were  used  on  this  road,  two  for  hauling 
and  one  for  road  construction  work.  One  of  them,  a  60-ton 
rod  engine,  hauled  only  on  the  main  line,  while  a  55-ton  Shay 
geared  locomotive  hauled  on  the  spurs  and  pulled  a  train  for 
7  miles  on  the  main  line  each  morning  and  night.  A  35-ton 
Shay  was  used  exclusively  for  construction  work  and  for  hauling 
water  for  the  camp. 

A  logger  in  the  Missouri  shortleaf  pine  region,  operating  35  miles 
of  standard-gauge  main  line  and  from  15  to  20  miles  of  spurs,  used 
the  following  equipment  to  handle  125,000  board  feet  daily  (90 
cars) . 


358  LOGGING 

316  Skeleton  log  cars  (20  feet  long;    bunks  10  feet  wide,  12  feet  center 

to  center). 
2  Cabooses  (1  for  the  main  line  and  1  for  the  loading  crew). 
2  Tank  cars  for  hauling  water  for  the  camp. 

2  Flat  cars  (1  for  the  construction  crew  and  1  for  the  main-line  train). 
1  Mule  car  for  transporting  the  animals  used  in  loading. 

Seven  rod  locomotives  of  the  following  weights  were  used: 

1 24-ton 

1 36-ton 

1 38-ton 

2 44-ton 

,1 48-ton 

1 50-ton 

Five  engines  were  in  constant  use  in  hauling  on  the  main  line 
and  spurs;  one  locomotive  was  used  by  the  loading  crew  and 
construction  train;  and  one  was  held  in  reserve. 

An  Alabama  longleaf  pine  operation  with  24  miles  of  main 
line,  and  from  5  to  6  miles  of  spurs  used  fifty-three  40-foot  flat 
cars  to  haul,  daily,  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  cars  of  logs  (70,000 
to  90,000  board  feet).  These  cars  had  a  rated  (capacity  of  60,000 
pounds  and  each  carried  from  2500  to  3500  board  feet. 

The  logs,  which  were  hauled  6  miles  over  a  trunk-line  rail- 
road, were  loaded  on  cars  provided  and  kept  in  repair  by  the 
trunk-line  railroad  which  also  furnished  one  65-ton  rod  engine 
for  use  on  its  track. 

The  logging  company  provided  one  54-ton  rod,  one  40-ton 
rod,  and  three  Shay  locomotives  of  the  following  weights:  28, 
32,  and  55  tons.  The  rod  engines  were  used  on  the  18  miles  of 
main-line  logging  road,  while  the  32-  and  55-ton  Shays  were  used 
on  the  spurs,  and  the  28-ton  Shay  on  the  construction  train. 

On  a  western  operation  where  200,000  board  feet  were  hauled, 
daily,  over  a  3-mile  main  line  with  a  5  per  cent  maximum  grade 
and  many  curves,  a  55-ton  Heisler  was  used  on  the  main  line  and 
a  35-ton  Heisler  on  the  3^  miles  of  spurs.  Forty  40-foot  flat 
cars  were  required  to  handle  the  output 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO   CHAPTER  XX 

Corps   of   Engineers,   U.    S.   Army:     Mihtary   Railways.     Professional 

Papers  No.  32,  Washington,  1917. 
Earle,  Robert  T.:    Adaptability  of  the  Gypsy  Locomotive  for  Logging 

Purposes.     The  Timberman,  August,   1910,  pp.  34-35. 


MOTIVE  POWER  AND   ROLLING   STOCK  359 

Evans,  W.  P. :  The  Mallet  Locomotive  in  the  Field  of  Logging  Operations. 

The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  61-64. 
Harp,  C.  A.:    The  Gasoline  Locomotive  and  its  AvailabiHty  for  Logging 

Roads.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  57-58. 
Ives,  J.  F. :   Fuel  Oil  as  a  Substitute  for  Wood  and  Coal  in  Logging.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1909,  p.  39. 
Ives,   J.   F.:    Utihzation  of  Compressed  Air  on  Logging  Trucks.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1910,  p.  60. 
Russell,  C.  W.:  Utilization  of  Air  on  Logging  Trucks.     The  Timberman, 

August,  1910,  p.  58. 
Tate,   M.   K.:    Locomotive  Maintenance.     American  Lumberman,  July 

15,  1922,  p.  47. 
Turney,   Harry:    Adjustable   Air-brake   Equipment  for  the   Control   of 

Detached  Trucks.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  p.  54. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
LOADING   AND   UNLOADING   CARS 

LOADING    CARS 

ThsJJ^emshaMT^ —  One  of  the  early  methods  of  loading  cars 
was  by  means  of  the  crosshaul.^  A  crew  of  five  men  and  a  team 
were  required  and  the  daily  output  did  not  exceed  40,000  board 


Fig.  121.  —  Loading  Log  Cars  with  a  Crosshaul.     Missouri. 

feet.     On  large  operations  this  method  is  too  slow,  although  it 
is  still  used  by  loggers  who  have  a  small  daily  output. 

Power  Loaders.  —  One  of  the  first  successful  power  loaders 
was  put  on  the  market  in  1885  and  since  that  time  many  forms 
have  been  brought  out,  which  differ  in  the  manner  of  locomo- 
tion, character  of  booms,  and  other  details  to  meet  special  re- 
quirements. They  are  used  for  loading  flat  and  skeleton  cars. 
^  See  page  138. 
360 


LOADING  AND  UNLOADING  CARS  361 

A  power  loader  has  a  steam  hoisting  engine  and  drums,  an 
upright  boiler,  and  a  rigid  or  swinging  loading  boom.  It  is 
usually  mounted  on  a  truck  which  is  provided  with  some  ap- 
pliance for  transporting  the  machine.  Gasoline  engines  have 
been  substituted  for  steam  on  some  patterns  but  they  are  not  in 
extensive  use. 

Loaders  are  built  with  a  short  swinging  base-control  boom,  a 
long  swinging  end-control  boom,  or  with  a  rigid  boom.  The 
first  two  types  are  adapted  for  loading  on  poor  track  because 
the  logs  can  be  centered  on  the  car  and  less  manual  labor  is  re- 
quired to  build  the  load  securely.  They  also  are  desirable  where 
the  logs  are  scattered.  Short  booms  are  not  adapted  to  handling 
long  lengths.  Rigid  booms  are  used  to  advantage  on  good 
track  where  the  logs  are  abundant  and  fairly  well  decked. 

There  are  two  types  of  loaders. 

(1)  Loaders  operating  from  log  cars.  The  Barnhart,  Model 
C  American,  and  the  Rapid  loaders  are  examples  of  this  type. 

(2)  Loaders  operating  from  the  main  railroad  track.  The 
Decker,  McGiffert,  Surry  Parker,  American  Models  D  and  E, 
and  the  Browning  are  the  more  common  machines  of  this  type. 

An  advantage  of  the  second  type  of  loader  is  that  it  may  re- 
main in  one  place  until  all  logs  are  loaded,  while  loaders  of  the 
first  type  must  change  their  base  for  every  car  unless  a  locomotive 
is  in  attendance  to  move  the  train  as  desired. 

(a)  BamhgjJ^ —  This  style  of  loader  requires  either  perma- 
nent or  temporary  tracks  on  the  log  car  over  which  the  loader 
passes.  When  permanent  track  is  used,  the  rails  are  laid  only 
the  length  of  the  car  bed,  because  otherwise  they  would  inter- 
fere when  the  train  rounded  sharp  curves.  The  space  between 
the  rails  on  each  car  is  spanned  with  two  D -shaped  irons  placed 
on  the  car  rails  which  can  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  loader  has 
passed  over  the  gap.  Temporary  tracks  are  made  in  three  sections. 
The  loader  rests  on  one  section,  another  spans  the  gap  between 
the  two  cars  and  the  third  rests  on  the  empty  car  at  the  rear 
of  the  machine.  As  the  loader  proceeds  along  the  train  the 
tracks  are  picked  up  by  the  loader  and  moved  behind  it. 

The  engine,  drums,  booms,  and  all  working  parts  are  mounted 
on  a  steel  frame,  which  is  pivoted  to  a  truck  frame  carrying 
eight  pairs  of  trucks,  with  wheels  10  inches  in  diameter.  The 
loader  can  revolve  in  a  complete  circle  by  means  of  a  geared 


362 


LOGGING 


wheel,  attached  to  the  truck  frame,  into  which  mesh  two  pinions 
which  are  driven  by  a  double  rotating  engine.  One  form  of 
this  loader  uses  a  chain  control  for  the  rotary  movement.  The 
weight  of  the  loader  is  borne  on  five  cone-shaped  rollers  attached 
to  the  truck  frame. 

The  loader  moves  under  its  own  power  from  one  car  to  another. 

A  feature  of  this  loader  is  a  slack  pulling  device  which  has 
a  pair  of  friction  sheaves  mounted  on  the  boom  and  driven  by 
a  belt.     The  power  is  controlled  by  a  hand  lever. 

Two  sizes  of  loaders  are  made,  the  smaller.  No.  10,  having 
chain  control,  an  oak  boom  25  feet  long,  a  double  6|-  by  8-inch 


Fig.  122. —  Till    A 


hoisting  engine  with  governor  control  and  a  36-  by  96-inch  verti- 
cal boiler. 

The  No.  12  loader  has  a  steel  boom  23  feet  9  inches  long,  gear 
and  pinion  rotary  control,  double  hoisting  engines  with  7h-  by 
8-inch  cylinders,  controlled  by  a  balanced  throttle,  and  a  50-  by 
82-inch  vertical  boiler.  The  pull  at  the  tongs  on  this  machine 
is  from  9  to  10  tons. 

The  Barnhart,  though  a  fast  machine,  is  more  expensive  to 
keep  in  repair  than  some  of  the  other  types  of  loaders,  and  re- 
(luires  skillful  labor  to  secure  the  maximum  output.  It  is  rarely 
used  on  narrow-gauge  roads.  The  maximum  log  that  it  can 
handle  is  one  containing  about  1500  board  feet. 


LOADING  AND  UNLOADING  CARS 


363 


(6)  Model  C  American.  —  This  type  of  loader  is  similar  in 
character  and  operation  to  the  Barnhart.  It  runs  on  temporary- 
tracks  and  uses  the  geared  circle  for  rotating  the  machine.  It 
is  one  of  the  cheapest  loaders  to  keep  in  repair  and  will  handle 
a  log  containing  2000  board  feet. 

(c)  Rapid.  —  The  Rapid  loader  has  a  stiff  wooden  boom, 
an  upright  boiler  and  a  double  hoisting  engine.  These  are  mounted 
on  a  pair  of  steel  runners  on  which  the  loader  slides  from  car 


Fig.  123. 


The  Rapid  Log  Loader. 


to  car.  Power  for  moving  itself  is  furnished  by  a  cable  and  drum. 
Rapid  loaders  are  sometimes  mounted  on  a  hea\y  pair  of  two- 
sleds  for  sled  loading.     It  is  adapted  for  light  work. 

{d)  Model  D  American.  —  This  loader  is  used  only  where  light 
equipment  is  employed  because  it  is  necessary  for  the  loader  to 
lift  the  empty  car  from  the  track  in  the  rear  to  the  front,  or  vice 
versa.  Model  E  is  similar  in  character  but  has  eight  wheels 
on  the  trucks  and  is  adapted  for  poor  track.  Both  D  and  E 
models  can  move  under  their  own  power. 

(e)  Decker.  —  The  frame  of  this  loader  has  two  decks.  The 
upper  one  is  supported  by  steel  posts  which  rest  on  bolsters 
placed  directly  over  the  trucks  on  which  the  loader  is  mounted. 
This  deck  carries  the  boiler,  engine,  and  other  working  parts  of 
the  machine,  while  the  lower  deck  is  on  a  level  with  the  bolsters 


364 


LOGGING 


and  carries  a  portable  track  with  hinged  end  sections  which  may 
be  lowered  upon  the  rails  and  thus  provide  a  continuous  track 
through  the  loader. 

In  operation  a  train  of  empties  is  pushed  out  to  the  loader  and 
backed  through  it  until  the  last  car  comes  in  proper  position, 
under  the  boom,  for  loading.  As  other  empty  cars  are  required 
a  cable  connected  to  a  drum  is  run  through  the  machine  and  is 
attached  to  the  draw  bar  of  the  first  empty  car.  This  car  is 
then  hauled  through  the  loader,  pushing  the  loaded  car  forward 


m^^^ 


tr  ^^^' 


Fig.  124.  —  The  Decker  Log  Loader. 


until  the  succeeding  empty  one  is  in  position  for  loading.  The 
work  proceeds  in  this  manner  until  the  skidway  has  been  emptied. 

The  Decker  can  travel  under  its  own  power  from  one  point  to 
another,  and  can  switch  cars  if  necessary,  although  the  latter  is 
not  economical  if  a  locomotive  is  available.  It  is  recommended 
for  narrow-gauge  steel  and  wooden  railroads. 

(/)  McGiffert.  —  This  loader  is  similar  in  operation  to  the 
Decker.  It  has  an  elevated  deck  which  carries  the  working 
parts  and  when  the  machine  is  loading  the  frame  is  supported  on 
four  corner  posts  or  "spuds"  which  are  curved  in  toward  the 
base.  Each  post  ends  in  a  broad  shoe  which  rests  upon  the 
crossties  outside  of  the  rails.  The  empty  cars  pass  under  the 
deck,  traveling  on  the  main  track.     The  loader  is  equipped  with 


LOADING  AND   UNLOADING   CARS 


365 


a  pair  of  trucks  at  both  the  forward  and  the  rear  ends,  on  which 
the  loader  travels.  The  frames  to  which  these  trucks  are  at- 
tached and  the  trucks  themselves  are  so  hung  on  a  shaft  under 
the  floor  of  the  deck  that  during  the  loading  operation  they  may 
be  brought  to  a  horizontal  position  under  the  loader.  The 
machine  is  then  supported  on  the  ties  by  the  spuds.  When  ready 
to  move,  the  weight  of  the  loader  is  lifted  from  the  spuds  by 
bringing  the  truck  frames  to  a  vertical  position  by  means  of  cables 


The  McGiffert  Log  Loader. 


and  other  mechanism.  This  raises  the  loader  from  the  spuds 
ready  for  a  change  of  base.  Power  is  transmitted  to  the  axles 
of  the  trucks  by  means  of  sprocket  chains. 

This  machine  has  a  boom  which  can  swing  through  an  arc  of 
approximately  40  degrees  and  is  adapted  for  longer  logs  and  wider 
gauge  roads  than  the  Decker  because  of  the  greater  space  between 
the  rail  and  the  deck. 

{g)  Surry  Parker.  —  This  loader  embodies  the  same  general 
principles  as  the  two  loaders  previously  described,  having  the 
upper  deck  high  enough  to  permit  loaded  flat  cars  to  be  run  under 
it.  An  early  type  was  built  without  a  device  for  transporting 
itself,  being  carried  about  on  a  flat  car.  The  modern  type  of 
machine,  however,  is  portable,  the  power  being  transferred  from 
the  engines  to  the  axles  by  a  chain  drive. 


366  LOGGING 

Capacity.  —  The  output  per  day  of  a  given  type  of  loader  is 
dependent  largely  on  the  skill  of  the  operator  and  the  loading 
crew,  provided  logs  are  at  hand  and  the  supply  of  empty  cars  is 
adequate.  The  daily  output  may  be  as  low  as  from  30,000  to 
40,000  board  feet  and  again  may  rise  to  nearly  300,000  board  feet. 
For  short  logs  the  swinging-boom  base-control  type  of  loader  is  the 
more  active  and  under  average  conditions  may  load  from  100,000 
to  130,000  board  feet  daily 

SPECIAL   LOADING    DEVICES 

A  number  of  special  devices  are  used  for  loading  large  logs  on 
cars,  especially  in  the  Pacific  Coast  region. 

The  "Gin-pole." —  This  is  a  modification  of  the  crosshaul,  a 
yarding  engine  being  substituted  for  horses.  A  1-inch  loading 
cable  passes  through  a  block  attached  to  a  mast  or  gin-pole 
about  60  feet  in  height,  which  is  set  in  the  ground  on  the  side  of 
the  track  opposite  the  landing,  and  is  thoroughly  braced  with  guy 
ropes. 

The  logs  are  loaded  from  a  landing  along  the  railroad  to  which 
they  are  brought  by  a  yarding  engine,  road  engine,  or  swing 
donkey.  Landings  are  built  level  with  the  car  bunks  and  are 
made  from  40  to  300  feet  long,  but  they  usually  are  about  120 
feet  long  to  accommodate  two  60-foot  logs.  They  may  be  made 
of  a  number  of  skids  from  15  to  18  inches  in  diameter,  placed 
about  6  feet  apart  at  right  angles  to  the  railroad  track,  and 
supported  on  crib  work;  or  a  large  log  may  be  placed  on  the 
fore  part  of  the  landing  parallel  and  next  to  the  track  and  from 
this  the  main  skids  supported  on  a  cribwork  run  at  right  angles. 
The  rear  of  the  landing  may  be  at  a  lower  level  than  the  part 
nearest  the  track. 

Where  top  loads  are  put  on  cars  a  "  lead  log"  is  placed  parallel 
to  the  tracks  on  the  side  opposite  the  landing.  It  projects 
slightly  above  the  top  of  the  car  bunks  and  in  order  that  the 
direction  of  pull  may  always  be  at  right  angles  the  loading  cable 
is  made  to  pass  through  the  lead  blocks  which  are  attached  to 
this  log.  Where  a  lead  log  is  not  used  it  is  customary  to  set  up- 
right posts  20  feet  apart  along  the  track  opposite  the  landing. 
These  are  not  as  convenient  as  the  former  because  their  use 
makes  it  necessary  for  the  engineer  of  the  road  engine  to  always 
leave  the  logs  opposite  them. 


LOADING  AND   UNLOADING   CARS  367 

The  loading  cable  passes  from  the  drum  on  the  road  engine, 
or  from  a  special  loading  engine  through  a  block  at  the  peak  of 
the  gin-pole,  then  through  the  lead  blocks,  then  across  the  car 
and  over  and  under  the  center  or  end  of  the  log  to  be  loaded. 
The  cable  is  then  brought  forward  and  the  grab  hook  on  the  end 
of  the  cable  is  caught  in  the  edge  of  the  landing,  or  on  the  car 
bunk.  By  winding  in  the  cable  on  the  drum  the  log  is  rolled 
up  the  landing  and  upon  the  car. 

A  modification  of  this  device  has  been  brought  out  for  more 
rapid  work  and  for  handling  long  logs.  It  has  a  loading  engine 
similar  in  type  to  the  yarding  engines  and  two  gin-poles  and 
loading  lines  instead  of  one.  The  cables  are  attached  to  the 
logs  by  means  of  tongs  or  slings.  Each  line  may  be  operated 
independently  or  the  two  may  be  operated  in  unison.^  Gin- 
pole  loading  is  being  superseded  by  overhead  methods. 

Loading  with  Jacks  or  Peavies.  —  This  method,  which  is  now 
rarely  used,  is  employed  where  logs  are  loaded  by  hand  and  only 
bunk  loads  are  placed  on  the  cars,  peavies  being  used  for  loading 
small  logs  and  jacks  for  large  ones. 

Overhead  systems.  —  Various  forms  of  overhead  loading  devices 
have  been  developed  to  replace  the  gin-pole  because  they  obviate 
the  construction  of  landings  which  have  limited  storage  capacity 
and  from  which  logs  nmst  be  loaded  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  yarded,  thus  eliminating  any  chance  for  the  loadermen  to 
select  the  logs  as  they  are  placed  on  the  cars.  The  greatest 
development  in  overhead  loading  equipment  has  been  made  in 
the  Northwest.  Some  overhead  systems  operate  without  stand- 
ing lines,  while  others  are  equipped  with  them.  The  type  shown 
in  Fig.  126  has  two  gin-poles  placed  from  100  to  200  feet  apart, 
the  head  pole  being  from  50  to  60  feet  in  height.  This  is  located 
on  the  side  of  the  track  opposite  the  spot  at  which  the  yarding 
engine  delivers  the  logs.  The  other  pole  is  from  15  to  20  feet 
in  height  and  may  be  a  gin-pole  or  a  tall  stump.  The  |-inch 
hoisting  line  leads  from  the  main  drum  of  the  loading  engine 
through  a  double  block  at  the  top  of  the  head  pole,  then  through 
a  single  block  in  the  bight  of  the  line.  The  f-inch  trip  line 
leads  from  a  second  drum  on  the  loader,  through  a  block  at  the 
top  of  the  head  pole,  then  through  a  block  on  the  opposite 
pole,  to  the  12-foot  crotch  spreader.  This  equipment  can  move 
1  The  Timberman,  December,  1910,  \).  33. 


368 


LOGGING 


logs  either  away  from  or  toward  the  cars.  The  landing  place 
can  be  made  large  enough  to  store  100,000  board  feet  of  logs, 
so  that  loading  can  continue  when  the  yarding  equipment  is 
temporarily  out  of  commission  and  the  yarding  equipment  like- 
wise may  continue  to  bring  in  logs  even  though  loading  and  hauling 
may  not  be  in  progress. 

An  overhead  loader  with  a  standing  line  is  shown  in  Fig.  127. 
Two  trees  or  gin-poles  from  200  to  800  feet  apart  serve  as  supports 
for  the  standing  line  which  is  located  so  that  loading  may  take 
place  from  either  side  of  the  track.  A  loading  line  passes  from 
the  loading  engine  up  to  and  through  a  block  on  the  near  spar, 


Fig.  126. 


From  Bulletin  711,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

An  Overhead  Loading  System  used  in  the  Pacific  Coast  Forests. 


thence  to  the  trolley  where  it  is  looped  down  over  sheaves  on  the 
carriage  to  support  a  block  in  the  bight  of  the  line  and  then 
to  the  far  spar  where  it  is  fastened.  The  trolley  is  moved  back 
and  forth  by  means  of  trip  lines,  one  of  which  leads  from  one 
end  of  the  trolley  to  a  block  on  the  far  spar,  then  back  to  and  through 
a  block  on  the  near  spar  and  down  to  a  drum  on  the  loader.  A 
similar  trip-line  is  attached  to  the  other  end  of  the  trolley  and 
passes  to  and  through  a  block  on  the  near  spar  and  down  to  a 
drum  on  the  loader. 

The  lifting  line  is  operated  independently  of  the  trip-line, 
hence  the  load  can  be  raised  or  lowered  as  the  trolley  travels 
along  the  standing  line. 


370 


LOGGING 


Guy-line  System.  —  This  is  a  common  method  of  loading  logs 
which  have  been  yarded  by  an  overhead  or  high-lead  system.^ 
A  standing  line,  usually  a  guy  line  for  the  spar  tree,  is  stretched 
across  the  track  and  from  this  is  suspended  a  block  at  a  height 
of  about  60  feet  above  and  directly  over  the  center  of  the  track. 


Loading  Block -^. 


...@K«. 


A 


Fig.  128. 


From  Bulletin  711,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

A    Single    Guy-line    Loading    S3'stem.     Pacific    Coast    Forests. 


The  loading  line  passes  from  a  drum  on  the  yarding  engine  or 
loader  up  to  and  through  a  block  on  the  head  spar  and  thence  to 
and  through  the  loading  block.  This  method  is  not  capable  of 
handling  a  very  large  yarding  output.  When  this  is  necessary 
two  loading  lines  may  be  used. 

Swinging-boom  loaders.  —  When  logging  with  an  overhead  sys- 
tem in  small-  to  medium-sized  timber,  loading  equipment  of  the 
type  shown  in  Fig.  129  may  be  used.  An  end-control  swinging 
boom  about  50  feet  long  is  supported  at  its  base  on  the  head  spar 
tree,  and  at  its  outer  end  by  a  cable  which  is  also  attached  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  spar.  The  boom  may  be  moved  in  a  radius 
of  90  or  more  degrees  by  means  of  the  swinging  lines,  each  of 
1  See  Fig.  128. 


LOADING  AND   UNLOADING  CARS 


371 


which  passes  from  a  small  drum  on  the  loading  engine,  up  to  and 
through   a    block  on  the  spar,  through  a  block  on  the   end   of 


From  Bulletin  711,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Fig.  129.  —  A  Swinging-boom  Loading  Device  .sometimes  used  with  the  Lidger- 
wood  Overhead  Logging  System. 

the  boom  and  thence  to  a  stump  or  "dead  man."  By  pulling 
in  on  one  line  and  letting  the  other  run  out,  the  boom  may  be 
swung  to  one  side  or  the  other. 


372  LOGGING 

Jack  Works.  —  Where  logs  are  to  be  raised  to  a  considerable 
height  as  from  a  river  or  a  pond  a  "jack  works"  is  employed. 
This  method  has  been  used  both  in  the  South  and  in  the  North- 
east, when  medium-sized  logs  are  handled.  A  jack  works  is 
a  long  narrow  platform  built  at  a  sufficient  height  above  ground 
to  permit  the  construction  of  a  sloping  dock  on  the  side  next 
to  the  loading  tracks,  the  base  of  which  is  flush  with  the  car  bunks. 
The  loading  tracks  on  which  the  log  cars  are  "spotted"  are  placed 
parallel  to  the  dock.  The  length  of  the  platform  is  governed 
by  the  number  of  cars  to  be  loaded  and  the  switching  facilities. 
If  provision  is  made  for  moving  cars  by  gravit.y  and  the  logs  are 
of  fairly  even  length  so  that  any  of  them  will  go  on  a  given  car, 
the  platform  need  only  be  long  enough  to  handle  the  longest  logs. 
When  logs  must  be  assorted  before  loading  and  when  many  cars 
must  be  spotted  at  one  time  the  platform  should  be  of  sufficient 
length  to  accommodate  the  maximum  number. 

A  shallow  trough  runs  the  entire  length  of  the  platform,  in 
which  an  endless  chain  travels  to  which  log  dogs  are  attached  at 
approximately  8-foot  intervals.  A  similar  trough  and  chain 
serves  to  bring  the  logs  from  the  water  to  the  platform  along 
which  they  are  carried  until  they  are  rolled  upon  the  dock  below. 
The  chains  are  driven  either  by  a  steam  or  gasoline  engine. 
The  logs  are  loaded  on  cars  chiefly  by  gravity.  Skids  are  placed 
from  the  docks  to  the  load  as  the  latter  is  built  up,  and  the  top 
logs  are  rolled  upon  the  load  with  cant  hooks. 

UNLOADING   LOG    CARS 

The  expeditious  unloading  of  log  cars  is  an  important  factor 
in  train  operations  because  it  reduces  the  amount  of  rolling  stock 
required.  Softwood  logs  are  generally  stored  in  ponds,  streams, 
or  on  storage  skids,  but  hardwood  logs  and  pulp  stock  may  be 
placed  in  large  piles  on  land. 

Railways.  —  Where  water  storage  is  used  the  track  is  built 
along  the  bank  of  the  stream  or  pond,  or  else  extended  over  the 
water  on  piling.  In  the  former  case  it  is  necessary  to  construct 
an  inclined  rollway  over  which  the  logs  may  be  rolled  into  the 
water.  This  has  a  framework  composed  of  three  parallel  sets 
of  stringers,  spaced  8  feet  apart,  which  extend  along  the  water's 
edge  from  400  to  600  feet.     The  outer  stringer  projects  over 


LOADING  AND  UNLOADING   CARS 


373 


the  water's  edge  and  is  supported  on  piling  or  on  timbers  that 
rest  on  solid  bottom,  while  the  other  stringers  are  supported 
on  round  or  square  uprights  placed  from  4  to  6  feet  apart.  Heavy 
round  or  square  timbers,  often  shod  with  railroad  iron,  are  placed 
on  top  of  and  at  right  angles  to  the  stringers,  and  serve  as  a 
bed  over  which  the  logs  are  rolled.     These  timbers  are  spaced 


Fig.  130.  —  A  RoUway  at  the  Mill  Pond.     Texas. 


from  4  to  6  feet  apart  on  the  stringers  and  have  a  pitch  of  from 
15  to  25  degrees.  The  upper  ends  are  placed  level  with  the 
top  of  the  car  bunks. 

When  the  water  is  shallow  near  the  rollway,  the  logs  are 
shunted  into  deep  water  by  sloping  skids  which  extend  from  the 
lower  stringer  to  the  bed  of  the  pond  or  stream. 

The  railroad  track  is  laid  parallel  with  the  rollway  and  close 
enough  so  that  the  top  of  the  car  bunks  will  be  about  6  inches 
distant.  To  facilitate  unloading,  the  outer  rail  is  elevated  from 
12  to  15  inches  thus  throwing  the  side  of  the  car  next  the  rollway 
at  a  lower  level.  Many  of  the  logs  will  roll  from  the  car  into  the 
pond  when  the  car  stakes  are  removed,  the  dogs  on  the  car  bunks 
lowered,  or  the  binding  chains  are  loosened.  The  remainder  of 
the  logs  are  rolled  off  the  car  by  means  of  cant  hooks  or  peavies. 


374  LOGGING 

This  is  one  of  the  simplest  methods  and  is  widely  used  in  the 
Lake  States  and  southern  yellow  pine  region  where  the  timber  is 
of  medium  size. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  where  logs  arc  often  unloaded  into  tide- 
water and  rafted,  the  track  is  built  on  piling  either  over  the 
water  or  else  along  the  bank.  The  structure  is  long  enough  to 
accommodate  twenty  cars  or  more.  Some  protection  must 
be  given  the  piling  supporting  the  track  and  when  the 
trestle  is  in  deep  water  this  is  accomplished  by  driving  a  pile  at 
the  end  of  each  tie.  These  piles  are  cut  off  about  2  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  track  and  are  beveled  on  top  to  shunt 
off  the  falling  logs.  An  additional  row  of  piles  is  sometimes 
driven  just  outside  the  first  one  and  beveled  off  in  a  similar 
manner.  When  the  trestle  is  located  on  land,  a  slanting  roll- 
way  must  be  built  out  far  enough  to  carry  the  logs  into  deep 
water. 

The  outer  rail  of  the  track  is  elevated  from  8  to  12  inches, 
either  by  leaving  the  outer  legs  of  the  trestle  longer,  or  by  elevat- 
ing the  outer  ends  of  the  crossties  by  means  of  blocking. 

When  car  stakes  are  used  the  practice  is  either  to  knock  them 
out  with  a  maul,  or  to  cut  them  off  with  an  ax.  Logs  often  will 
roll  off  the  cars  unaided,  but  when  assistance  is  required,  jacks 
are  used  for  log  trucks  and  often  for  flats.  Power  unloaders 
are  often  used  for  unloading  flat  and  skeleton  cars. 

For  dry  land  storage  at  mills,  skidways  are  built  on  one  or 
both  sides  of  the  device  used  for  conveying  logs  into  the  mill. 
The  skidways  are  wide  enough  to  hold  one  car  of  logs,  and  long 
enough  to  accommodate  the  required  number  of  cars.  Storage 
skidways  are  a  series  of  parallel  skids  placed  at  right  angles  to 
the  railroad  track,  and  supported  on  tunbers  placed  on  the  ground. 
The  skids  slope  toward  the  center  at  an  angle  of  from  10  to  12 
degrees  to  facilitate  handling  the  logs.  The  outer  rail  of  the 
track  is  elevated  to  aid  in  unloading. 

Power  Unloaders.  —  There  are  several  types  of  power  unloaders 
which  are  used  chiefly  on  the  Pacific  Coast  where  large  and 
long  logs  are  handled.  However,  some  types  are  employed  in  the 
Lake  States  and  in  the  hardwood  region. 

Swinging-boom  log  loaders  which  pick  logs  from  the  car  and 
deposit  them  on  either  side  of  the  track  are  among  the  devices 
used  where  logs  are  stored  in  piles  on  dry  ground. 


LOADING    AND    UNLOADING    CARS  375 

An  overhead  cableway  system  which  is  supported  on  two  spars 
from  500  to  600  feet  apart  and  spanning  the  railroad  track  on  which 
the  logs  are  brought  in,  is  sometimes  employed  where  logs  are 
stored  in  piles. 

An  ingenious  device  called  a  log  dump  is  in  use  at  some  plants. 
One  built  in  Washington  has  two  dumps  separated  by  30  feet 
of  stationary  track,  the  entire  stmcture  being  supported  on 
piling.^  The  platform  of  each  dump  is  40  feet  long  and  has 
four  latch  timbers  {Ay,  which  are  11  feet  long  and  a  fifth  timber 
(B),  known  as  the  trip  timber,  which  is  36  feet  long  and  of  larger 
size.  The  frame  is  hung  on  a  roller  timber  (C)  18  by  18  inches 
square  and  40  feet  2  inches  long  which  rests  on  heavy  cast-iron 
sills.  The  roller  timber  is  bound  with  an  iron  cylinder  to  facili- 
tate its  rotation.  This  roller  is  placed  off-center,  the  distance 
between  the  rail  on  the  land  side  and  the  center  of  the  roller 
timber  being  25  inches.  When  the  latches  (D)  holding  the  frame 
are  released  the  weight  of  the  load  will  automatically  tip  the 
frame  toward  the  brow  skid  (E)  through  an  arc  of  15  degrees. 
The  cars  are  run  on  the  dump,  the  chains  holding  the  logs  on  the 
cars  removed,  and  the  latches  (D)  opened.  The  dump  then 
revolves  until  the  car  bunk  rests  on  the  brow  skid  (£").  Many 
logs  will  roll  off,  but  some  may  have  to  be  started  by  means  of 
a  cable  passing  through  a  block  rigged  on  a  gin-pole  and  pulled 
by  a  locomotive.  The  dump  will  not  tip  when  the  load  is  heaviest 
on  the  land  side,  in  which  case  it  is  tilted  by  prying  up  on  the 
end  of  the  trip  timber  (B).  After  the  logs  are  off  the  car  the  dump 
is  brought  to  a  horizontal  position  by  having  men  walk  out 
on  the  trip  timber  (B). 

The  double  dump  will  handle  two  cars  of  40-foot  logs,  or  one 
car  of  long  logs  by  spotting  one  truck  on  each  track.  Three 
men  can  unload  a  car  in  two  and  one-half  minutes  and  can  un- 
load 350,000  board  feet  or  more  daily. 

One  efficient  unloader  has  a  hoisting  engine  and  two  drums 
mounted  on  a  car  equipped  with  a  rigid  boom.  The  railroad 
track  is  built  parallel  to  the  rollway  and  the  unloader  runs  on 
an  additional  track  on  the  land  side  of  the  dump.  The  boom 
is  so  placed  that  it  projects  at  right  angles  over  the  far  edge 
of  the  railroad  track.     The  unloader  can  travel  back  and  forth 

1  The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  p  68. 
K  See  Figs.  131  and  132. 


376 


LOGGING 


"0 
0 


3 
0 
0 
3 

0 

3 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


LJO 


LOADING    AND    UNLOADING    CARS  377 

under  its  own  power  for  a  distance  of  from  500  to  600  feet,  thus 
permitting  an  entire  train  to  be  unloaded  without  moving  the 
cars.  A  f-inch  cable  passes  from  the  drimis  on  the  hoisting 
engine  through  a  block  on  the  peak  of  the  boom,  down  under 
the  logs  and  the  grab  hook  is  caught  on  the  bunk  of  the  car  or 
on  the  buffer  log  of  the  rollway.  When  the  cable  is  wound  on 
the  drum  the  logs  are  crowded  off  the  car  upon  the  rollway.  Two 
other  drums  and  cables  are  used,  one  for  raising  and  lowering 
the  boom  and  the  other  for  moving  the  unloader  back  and  forth 
on  the  track.  When  logs  are  dumped  at  one  spot,  a  gin-pole 
and  crosshaul  may  be  used  which  is  operated  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  unloader  just  described. 

Another  form,  called  a  gill-poke,  designed  to  unload  heavy  logs 
from  cars  while  the  train  is  in  ihotion  has  two  steel  arms  17  feet 
long  made  of  channel  and  angle  iron.  The  arms  are  18  inches  wide 
except  at  the  ends,  where  they  are  made  36  inches  wide  to  give 
a  broad  surface  in  contact  with  the  logs.  A  heavy  casting  carry- 
ing a  sharp  edge  is  attached  to  the  outer  end  of  each  arm.  The 
two  arms  are  bolted  opposite  each  other  on  a  24-inch  journal,  and 
are  braced  with  a  turnbuckle.  The  arms  and  journal  are  set  on 
a  shaft  11  feet  long,  and  10  inches  in  diameter,  cut  down  to  8 
inches  where  the  journal  is  fastened  to  admit  the  attachment 
of  a  collar  with  ball  bearings.  The  shaft  is  set  on  a  concrete 
base,  high  enough  to  allow  the  arms  to  clear  the  car  bunks,  and 
far  enough  distant  so  that  when  the  arm  extends  across  the 
track  at  right  angles,  it  reaches  1  foot  beyond  the  outer  rail. 
To  unload  a  train  load  of  logs,  the  loaded  cars  are  pushed  up  to 
the  rear  of  the  unloader,  a  loader  arm  is  swung  up  against  the 
log,  and  the  train  put  in  motion.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  arm 
grips  the  log  and  as  the  train  advances  the  arm  is  turned  on  its 
axis  and  the  log  or  logs  are  gradually  shoved  off  the  car.  The 
momentum  acquired  in  performing  the  work  causes  the  arms 
to  revolve  rapidly  on  the  axis  as  soon  as  the  logs  are  dumped, 
and  the  opposite  arm  comes  in  contact  with  the  logs  on  the 
succeeding  car.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  stop  the  train  during 
the  unloading  process.  The  average  time  consumed  in  unload- 
ing 75,000  board  feet  of  logs  from  15  cars  is  eight  minutes. 

A  more  simple  form  of  gill-poke  has  a  heavy  timber  placed  par- 
allel to  the  land  side  of  the  railroad  track  and  elevated  about  5 
feet  above  the  track  level.     At  suitable  intervals  this  timber 


378 


LOGGING 


LOADING    AND    UNLOADING    CARS  379 

has  notches  cut  in  its  side  facing  the  track.  The  gill-poke  arm 
is  about  4  inches  square  and  from  6  to  8  feet  long  and  has  a  blunt 
collar  on  one  end  and  a  steel  prong  on  the  other.  The  outer 
rail  of  the  track  is  elevated  and  as  the  cars  are  slowly  pushed  by 
the  dumping  point,  the  collar  on  the  arm  is  inserted  in  one  of 
the  notches  in  the  timber  pointing  towards  the  direction  of 
approach,  and  the  sharp  end  placed  against  the  outside  log  on 
the  car.  As  the  train  proceeds  the  arm  tends  to  assume  a  position  at 
right  angles  to  the  track  and  forces  the  logs  from  the  car.  Thirty- 
two  cars  carrying  L50,000  board  feet  of  logs  have  been  unloaded 
by  this  method  in  twenty  minutes. 

A  device  used  by  a  redwood  operator  in  California  for  un- 
loading logs  from  cars  has  a  20-  by  28-inch  timber,  placed  across 
the  track  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  and  securely  fixed  at  each 
end  on  solid  supports.  The  base  of  the  beam  is  about  8  inches 
above  the  car  bunk.  The  loaded  train,  one  log  on  each  car,  is 
brought  in  from  the  woods  and  pushed  along  the  track  toward 
the  unloader.  The  logs  striking  the  slanting  timber  are  pushed 
off  the  car  as  the  train  advances.  When  half  of  the  train  has 
been  unloaded  the  locomotive  is  uncoupled  from  the  rear  of  the 
train,  and  attached  to  the  forward  cars,  and  unloading  is  continued 
until  completed.  Thirty  thousand  board  feet  of  logs  can  be 
unloaded  by  this  device  in  three  minutes. 

The  overhead  monorail  system  has  recently  been  adapted  to 
unloading,  assorting  and  storing  hardwood  logs.  The  capacity 
of  this  machine  when  unloading  and  assorting,  only,  is  about 
65,000  board  feet  per  day.  When  logs  are  unloaded,  assorted 
and  the  log  requirements  of  the  mill  delivered  at  the  foot  of  the 
jack  ladder,  the  daily  capacity  is  about  40,000  board  feet.^ 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   TO   CHAPTER  XXI 

Anontmous:    Swinging  "Gill-poke"  Unloader.     The  Timberman,  October, 

1909,  p.  23. 
EvENSON,  O.  J.:    An  Improved  Log-loading  System.     The  Timberman, 

August,  1912,  p.  52. 
Gibbons,  W.  H.:    Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agriculture,  Bui.  711,  Washington,  1918,  pp.  229  to  238. 

1  See  American  Lumberman,  Nov.  12,  1921,  p.  44. 


380  LOGGING 

O'GoRMAN,  J.  S.:   Unloading  Log  Cars  with  a  Stationary  Rig.     The  Tim- 

berman,  August,  1909,  p.  48. 
O'Hearne,  James:   Tilting  Log  Dumps.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912. 

pp.  68-69. 
Van  Orsdel,   John   T.:    Cableway  Loading  System.     The  Timberman, 

July,  1911,  p.  46. 


PART  IV 
WATER  TRANSPORT 


CHAPTER  XXII 
FLOATING   AND   RAFTING 

Nearly  every  large  stream  in  the  forest  regions  of  the  United 
States  has  at  some  time  in  its  history  served  as  a  highway  down 
which  logs  and  lumber  have  been  floated  to  sawmills  and  market. 
It  is  still  the  more  common  method  of  transporting  logs  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  although  the  use  of  logging 
railroads  is  increasing  and,  in  many  regions,  they  have  superseded 
water  transportation,  because  of  the  depletion  of  the  timber 
supply  near  driveable  streams,  the  extensive  logging  of  non- 
buoyant  species,  and  the  increased  value  of  stumpage. 

In  the  more  recently  developed  timber  sections  of  the  Inland 
Empire  and  the  Pacific  Coast  water  transport  early  gained  a 
foothold  but  is  now  of  secondary  importance,  except  where  logs 
are  brought  to  the  shores  of  Puget  Sound,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean 
or  to  the  Columbia  River,  and  then  rafted  and  towed  to  the  mill. 
In  the  Northwest  only  large  streams  are  practicable  for  driving 
because  of  the  diameter  of  the  logs  and  the  long  lengths  in 
which  it  is  desirable  to  bring  them  from  the  forest. 

Logs  may  either  be  floated  singly  or  rafted.  The  former 
method  is  practiced  always  on  rough  water  and  small  streams, 
and  whenever  lawful  on  large  ones;  however,  rafting  is  com- 
pulsory on  navigable  streams. 

Water  transport  is  a  cheap  method  of  moving  logs  for  long 
distances  when  a  low  expenditure  is  necessary  for  stream  improve- 
ments and  driving,  and  also  for  transporting  logs  out  of  a  well- 
watered  region  where  otherwise  a  large  mileage  of  expensive 
logging  railroad  would  have  to  be  constructed  to  tap  a  trunk  line. 

Water  transport  has  the  following  disadvantages: 

(1)  It  is  limited  chiefly  to  logs  which  will  float.  Softwoods 
and  hardwoods  are  often  associated  together  in  the  forest  and 
present  market  conditions  make  it  profitable  to  remove  some 
or  all  of  the  latter,  which  is  often  impossible  with  water  trans- 
port. 


384  LOGGING 

(2)  It  is  dependent  on  an  abundant  rainfall  to  flood  the 
streams.  During  seasons  of  drought  it  may  be  impossible  or 
very  expensive  to  move  logs  by  water.  This  results  in  a  short 
log  supply  and  the  closing  down  or  short-time  operation  of  saw- 
mill plants.  Sawmills  in  the  northern  regions  that  are  dependent 
on  water  transportation  for  a  log  supply  can  only  run  for  six  or 
seven  months,  unless  special  provisions  are  made  for  keeping  the 
log  pond  open  during  freezing  weather.  During  the  remainder 
of  the  year  the  plant  is  idle  and  during  this  period  the  owner 
does  not  realize  on  his  investment. 

(3)  There  is  a  heavy  loss  in  driving  logs  for  long  distances. 
Logs  of  all  species  that  have  much  sapwood  suffer  a  heavy  loss  in 
merchantable  volume  between  the  bank  and  the  mill,  if  they  do 
not  reach  their  destination  during  the  season  in  which  they  were 
logged,  because  the  sapwood  is  attacked  by  insects  and  fungi. 
Basswood  logs  which  have  floated  for  a  short  period  in  water 
containing  vegetable  matter  acquire  a  peculiar  and  unpleasant 
odor  that  renders  the  lumber  from  them  unfit  for  sugar  barrel 
cooperage  and  packages  for  other  commodities  that  are  easily 
tainted. 

A  very  appreciable  loss  in  driving  timber  is  due  to  sunken  and 
stranded  logs.  The  extent  of  this  loss  is  depedent  on  the  species 
driven,   and  the   character  of  the  stream. 

The  heartwood  of  stranded  logs,  especially  of  hardwoods, 
suffers  from  checks  and  splits  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Where  timber  is  brought  down  rough  streams,  over  water- 
falls, and  past  obstructions  it  is  often  badly  battered  and  broken, 
gravel  and  sand  become  imbedded  in  a  large  per  cent  of  the 
logs  and  occasionally  iron  and  spikes  are  present,  especially 
where  iron  dogs  are  used  in  rafting.  Much  of  this  foreign  matter 
is  not  readily  detected,  and  mills  suffer  a  monetary  loss  due  to 
damaged  saws  and  time  lost  by  the  sawmill  crew. 

Strict  laws  are  now  in  force  in  most  states  providing  adequate 
penalties  for  the  theft  of  logs  so  that  this  evil  has  been  largely 
remedied. 

The  actual  loss  in  log  scale  from  all  causes  on  the  Mississippi 
river  drives  average  about  10  per  cent;  on  the  Cumberland  and 
Tennessee  rivers  in  Kentucky,  10  per  cent;  in  Montana,  10  per 
cent;  spruce,  from  5  to  10  per  cent  and  birch,  from  25  to  75  per 
cent  on  short  drives  in  the  Northeast;    hardwoods  in  Pennsyl- 


FLOATING  AND   RAFTING  385 

vania,  from  25  to  40  per  cent;  and  yellow  pine,  from  20  to  33 
per  cent.  The  loss  in  the  Lake  States  may  be  as  high  as  30  per 
cent.^  On  short  drives  of  coniferous  timber  the  loss  is  small  and 
may  be  from  zero  to  3  per  cent.  This  loss  is  due  chiefly  to  sunken 
and  stranded  logs  and  not  to  the  deterioration  of  sap-wood.- 

Floods  and  storms  have  caused  heavy  losses  to  lumbermen  who 
operate  on  the  large  streams.^  Booms  break  and  loose  logs  are 
carried  past  the  mills  and  deposited  on  the  banks  at  points  below, 
or  carried  out  to  sea.  Where  logs  are  deposited  on  lands  adjacent 
to  the  streams  heavy  expense  is  incurred,  not  only  in  getting  the 
logs  back  in  the  stream  but  in  the  payment  of  damages  to  owners 
on  whose  property  the  logs  are  deposited.  It  seldom  is  profit- 
able to  return  logs  upstream  to  the  mill  and  they  are  often  sold 
at  a  sacrifice  to  mills  below. 

Some  States  have  passed  laws  regulating  the  fee  that  parties 
may  charge  for  catching  stray  logs  that  are  afloat,  and  the  con- 
ditions under  which  log  catchers  may  operate.^ 

^  In  the  case  of  James  L.  Gates  vs.  Elliott  C.  Young,  lumber  inspector  of 
District  No.  2,  Wisconsin,  tried  in  the  courts  of  LaCrosse,  Wisconsin,  1901,  an 
attempt  was  made  by  plaintiff  to  compel  defendant  to  reimburse  him  for  dif- 
ference in  scale  between  the  "bank"  and  the  boom.  During  the  trial,  prom- 
inent lumbermen  from  the  Black  River  district  testified  that  "there  might 
and  would  occur  a  difference  between  the  woods  and  mouth  scale  of  from  10 
to  30  per  cent." 

2  A  study  of  log  loss  in  driving  in  Eastern  Canada  showed  that  out  of  a 
total  of  101,000  logs,  2.21  per  cent  sank.  Eastern  spruce  represented  5.1 
per  cent  of  the  sunken  logs,  and  balsam  fir,  94.4  per  cent.  One  hundred  and 
eighty-one  balsam  logs  and  forty-one  spruce  logs,  9.92  of  th?  total  contained 
rot. 

^  Notable  instances  are  the  floods  on  the  Susquehanna  River  in  Pennsylvania, 
which  caused  great  loss  to  operators  at  Williamsport.  In  1860,  .50,000,000 
feet  of  logs  were  carried  away,  followed  in  1861  with  a  loss  nearly  as  great. 
In  1889,  300,000,000  feet  were  carried  down  the  river  but  a  considerable 
quantity  of  logs  were  salvaged.  Another  flood  occurred  in  1894,  when 
150,000,000  feet  were  strewn  along  the  river  from  Williamsport  to  Chesapeake 
Bay.  Although  many  logs  from  these  floods  were  recovered  the  lo.ss  to  the 
owners  was  nevertheless  very  great. 

Floods  on  the  Penobscot  River  in  Maine  in  December,  1901,  carried  to  sea 
about  7,000,000  feet  of  logs,  valued  at  .$100,000. 

*  The  legal  fee  in  Pennsylvania  is  50  cents  for  each  thousand  feet  log  scale, 
held  and  delivered  to  the  owner. 

The  legal  fee  on  the  Guyandotte  River  in  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky  is  25 
cents  per  log. 

A  stringent  State  law  in  Washington  forbids  anyone  catching  runaway  logs 


386  LOGGING 

Runaway  logs  on  the  Ohio  River  have  been  carried  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  On  many  other  streams  draining  into  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Oceans  logs  have  been  carried  to  sea  and  lost.  Tim- 
ber caught  on  the  high  seas  is  the  property  of  the  finder.  Rafts 
on  the  Great  Lakes  were  sometimes  broken  up  during  storms  and 
the  logs  scattered  over  the  beach  for  many  miles.  The  collection 
of  logs  under  these  conditions  was  expensive  and  in  some  cases  the 
cost  was  prohibitive. 

(4)  Stream  improvements  are  of  little  or  no  value  after  the 
abandonment  of  logging  operations.  The  improvements  made 
on  streams  to  render  them  driveable  are  often  costly  and  of  such 
a  nature  that  they  cannot  be  used  for  other  purposes  after  logging 
is  completed.  Exceptions  to  this  may  be  noted  in  the  case  of 
the  boom  sticks  used  for  storage  purposes  at  large  sorting  centers, 
which  are  manufactured  into  lumber  at  the  conclusion  of  opera- 
tions; and  of  dams  on  large  streams  which  may  be  retained  for 
the  control  of  the  water  supply. 

(5)  The  heavy  and  long  time  investment  required  for  mill 
stocking.  With  long  drives  that  are  now  made  one  or  more 
seasons  may  elapse  before  the  logs  reach  the  mill.  On  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  Rivers  it  is  not  uncommon  for  logs  to  reach  their 
destination  the  second  summer  after  cutting  and  in  some  cases 
delivery  has  been  delayed  from  three  to  five  years.^  This  long 
time  investment  in  stumpage  and  logging  expense  is  not  only 
a  serious  drain  on  the  finances  of  a  lumber  company  but  the 
value  of  the  logs  that  have  been  cut  for  such  long  periods  is 
greatly  depreciated. 

(6)  The  legal  complications  with  riparian  owners.  The  rights 
of  loggers  on  "floatable"  and  "navigable"  streams  are  defined 
by  State  laws  which  vary  in  different  states.  The  driver  of 
logs  is  liable  for  damages  to  property  of  riparian  owners  caused 
by  the  creation  of  artificial  freshets  that  overflow  the  lands, 

without  permission.  This  law  was  found  necessary  to  stop  the  practice  of 
setting  logs  adrift  from  booms  at  night  and  then  claiming  a  fee  for  returning 
chem.  Loggers  pay  5  cents  per  tie  and  50  cents  per  log  for  all  runaways  that 
are  caught  and  returned  to  them. 

1  In  1907  a  drive  of  yellow  poplar  logs  came  down  the  Ohio  River  from  the 
headwaters  of  one  of  the  tributaries,  where  it  had  been  held  up  for  five  years 
because  of  an  insufficient  water  supply.  The  loss  in  merchantable  contents 
of  many  logs  was  75  per  cent. 


FLOATING   AND  RAFTING  387 

damage  the  banks,  or  deposit  logs  or  debris  on  the  property.^ 
Navigable  streams  must  be  kept  open  and  the  rights  of  all  other 
lawful  users  of  the  stream  respected. 

REQUIREMENTS    FOR   A   DRIVEABLE    STREAM 

(1)  The  size  of  the  stream.  The  stream  channel  should  be 
wide  enough  and  deep  enough  to  float  the  largest  and  longest 
logs  without  the  formation  of  jams.  High  banks  are  desirable 
since  they  confine  the  water  and  prevent  it  from  losing  its  force. 
When  not  so  confined  suflScient  water  may  not  be  available  to 
float  logs  for  more  than  a  short  distance,  in  which  case  numerous 
splash  dams  have  to  be  built. 

The  most  economical  use  can  be  made  of  a  small  stream  when 
it  is  only  a  little  wider  than  the  longest  logs  and  of  a  sufficient 
depth  to  float  them  clear  of  all  obstructions.  If  there  are  such 
the  channel  must  be  capable  of  improvement  at  a  moderate 
cost.  On  large  streams  logs  may  be  guided  around  obstructions 
by  the  use  of  booms  and  other  improvements,  but  in  narrow  chan- 
nels this  usually  is  impossible  and  the  stream  bed  must  be  im- 
proved either  by  the  removal  of  obstructions,  changing  the  course 
of  the  stream  or  putting  in  sluices  for  transporting  logs  around 
places  where  floating  by  ordinary  means  is  not  possible. 

(2)  The  channel  must  be  reasonably  straight  so  that  logs  will 
not  become  jammed  at  the  bends  of  the  stream.  This  is  most 
important  on  small  streams  because  of  the  narrow  channel. 
Oxbows  or  curves  in  small  streams  may  be  eliminated  by  making 
a  cut-off  or  channel  connecting  the  two  nearest  points,  but  this 
is  too  costly  when  bends  are  numerous. 

(3)  There  must  be  a  sufficiently  large  drainage  basin  above 
the  part  of  ths  stream  which  is  used  to  ensure  an  adequate  supply 
of  flood  water.  Coupled  with  this  there  must  be  storage  reservoirs 
for  holding  water  in  reserve  for  flooding  the  stream.  In  the 
North  the  snow  on  the  watershed  may  melt  and  a  large  part  of 
it  run  down  the  streams  before  the  drive  begins.  Storage  basins 
are  necessary  to  conserve  this  water. 

Lakes  form  an  admirable  reservoir  and  when  available  are 
used  for  this  purpose.  Surplus  water  is  caught  and  held  in 
them  by  placing  dams  across  their  mouths  and  when  several 

'  See  Howe  vs.  Ashland  Lumber  Co.  Decision  of  the  Supreme  Judicial 
Court  of  Maine,  8.5  Atlantic  Reporter,  160. 


388  LOGGING 

lakes  are  tributary  to  one  stream  driving  may  proceed  long 
after  the  spring  freshets  are  over. 

Sites  for  dams  should  have  a  narrow  channel,  high  Imnks,  and 
a  solid  bottom  for  their  foundation.  In  order  to  store  the  greatest 
amount  of  water  they  should  be  built  at  the  foot  of  a  lake,  at 
the  end  of  a  long  stretch  of  dead  water,  or  at  a  point  where 
the  maximum  amount  of  water  can  be  stored  with  a  minimum 
of  dam  height. 

Storage  reservoirs  should  be  large  enough  to  permit  log  driv- 
ing for  a  minimum  of  five  or  six  hours  daily  and  the  drainage 
area  should  furnish  enough  water  to  again  fill  the  storage  basin 
before  the  driving  period  on  the  following  day. 

The  required  watershed  area  and  the  capacity  of  the  storage 
basins  for  a  given  stream  are  dependent  on 

(a)  The  amount  of  moisture  precipitation  on  the  watershed 
especially  during  the  fall  and  winter  months  and  also  the  rapidity 
with  which  it  is  made  available  in  the  spring.  Drives  are  gen- 
erally dependent  on  flood  waters  and  a  rapid  run-ofT  is  desirable 
because  the  storage  basins  will  then  be  refilled  in  the  minunum 
time  after  each  splash. 

A  logger  usually  relies  on  his  judgment  as  to  whether  a  watershed 
is  capable  of  supplying  sufficient  flood  water  for  driving  purposes. 
He  bases  his  conclusions  on  flood  wood  and  earth  deposits  which 
are  visible  along  the  stream  banks,  on  a  familiarity  with  similar 
streams,  and  on  a  general  knowledge  of  rainfall  and  floods  in  the 
vicinity;  however,  the  amount  of  water  available  for  driving  in  a 
given  watershed  is  difficult  to  determine  accurately  because 
specific  records  from  which  to  draw  conclusions  are  seldom 
available. 

Evaporation  may  play  an  important  part  in  influencing  the 
water  supply  during  the  summer  season  by  taking  moisture 
both  from  the  soil  and  from  the  surface  of  the  storage  reservoirs. 
The  water  supply  for  early  spring  driving  is  not  greatly  affected 
by  evaporation,  but  shallow  reservoirs  that  store  water  for  sum- 
mer driving  have  a  high  rate  of  evaporation  and  it  is  sometimes 
impossible  to  collect  a  head  of  water. 

(6)  The  quantity  of  water  required  in  a  given  time  to  carry 
logs  down  stream  between  storage  reservoirs.  On  small  streams 
where  large  quantities  of  water  are  not  available  or  where  the 
banks  are  low  and  the  water  leaves  the  main  channel  it  may 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING  389 

not  be  possible  to  drive  logs  more  than  a  few  miles  at  most  before 
the  force  of  the  water  is  spent.  In  such  cases  frequent  storage 
basins  are  required. 

(c)  The  length  of  tune  for  which  flood  water  must  be  available. 
If  artificial  freshets  are  required  onl}^  for  a  short  time  in  the 
spring  when  the  streams  are  fed  from  snow  water  a  smaller  stor- 
age area  may  be  used  than  when  water  must  be  available  for 
several  months. 

DAMS 

Dams  for  logging  purposes  are  usuallj^  built  of  round  timber 
secured  close  to  the  dam  site. 

It  is  necessary  to  construct  a  dam  on  solid  bottom  or  bed 
rock  because  if  this  is  not  done  water  will  work  underneath  the 
sills  and  ultimately  cause  the  structure  to  go  out. 

There  are  three  types  of  timber  dams  used  for  logging  pur- 
poses: (1)  the  crib  or  pier  dam,  (2)  the  rafter  or  self-loading 
dam,  (3)  the  pile  dam. 

Concrete  dams  of  large  size  are  occasionally  used  by  lumber 
companies,  but  they  are  built  by  engineers,  and  loggers  are 
seldom  concerned  in  their  construction. 

Timber  dams  on  small  streams  usually  have  a  sluiceway 
through  which  logs  are  run  and  waste  water  passed,  while  on 
large  streams  several  waste  gates  are  required  to  take  care  of 
surplus  water.  "Roll  dams'  which  have  no  gates  or  sluice- 
ways are  also  built  to  raise  the  stream  level.  The  water  and 
logs  pass  over  the  crest  of  the  dam. 

The  choice  of  the  type  of  dam  to  be  used  depends  upon : 

(1)  The  character  of  the  bottoms.  When  the  subsoil  is  un- 
stable, the  dam  should  be  of  a  type  which  rests  upon  solid  founda- 
tion; otherwise  the  structure  will  be  undermined  and  carried 
away. 

(2)  The  head  of  water  desired.  The  water  pressure  against 
the  dam  increases  with  the  height  of  the  head  of  water  carried, 
therefore,  the  construction  must  be  stronger  as  the  height  increases. 

Dams  are  subject  chiefly  to  three  forces  which  cause  them  to 
become  dislodged  and  carried  away,  namely  crushing,  sliding 
and  overthrow.  These  are  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  water  on 
the  upstream  face  of  the  structure.  The  crushing  stress  is  over- 
come by  making  the  timbers  of  ample  size  to  resist  this  pressure, 


390  LOGGING 

sliding  is  prevented  by  anchoring  the  structure  to  bed  rock  or 
by  placing  the  mud  sills  deep  enough  in  the  earth  to  hold  them, 
and  overthrow  is  overcome  by  increasing  the  weight  of  the 
structure  by  filling  it  with  rock. 

Crib  Dams.  —  The  crib  dam  is  a  common  form  and  is  so- 
called  because  the  buttresses  and  wings  are  built  of  cribs  usually 
filled  with  stone  to  hold  them  down.  It  is  the  preferred  type 
where  a  large  head  of  water  is  to  be  carried  and  when  bed  rock 
or  a  solid  foundation  can  be  reached  at  a  depth  of  a  few  feet. 
Crib  dams  are  made  from  round  timbers  hewed  on  two  sides,  or 
from  squared  timbers.  The  foundation  of  a  crib  dam  must  be 
sohd,  and  whenever  possible  built  on  bedrock,  but  if  this  cannot 
be  done  the  foundation  may  rest  on  piles  driven  into  hard  clay 
or  to  bedrock.  If  this  is  impossible,  a  row  of  3-inch  plank  or 
small  hewed  poles  sharpened  on  one  end,  is  driven  across 
the  stream  channel  just  above  the  upstream  mud-sill.  These 
planks  and  timbers  are  called  toe-spiling. 

If  there  is  much  water  in  the  stream  bed  it  is  diverted  to  one 
side  by  temporary  dams  made  of  sand  bags  or  by  the  construc- 
tion of  sluices  made  from  logs  or  lumber. 

In  constructing  a  dam  whose  sills  are  to  rest  on  bedrock,  the 
first  work  done  after  the  water  is  diverted  is  to  excavate  trenches 
from  4  to  5  feet  wide  in  which  the  logs  forming  the  cribwork  are 
to  rest.  The  foundation  may  be  made  slightly  convex  on  the  up- 
stream side  in  order  that  the  force  of  the  water  will  tend  to  tighten 
the  joints  of  the  dam.  Parallel  lines  of  logs  called  "mud-sills" 
are  placed  across  the  stream  from  bank  to  bank,  each  row  being 
spaced  6  or  8  feet  from  the  adjoining  one.  The  width  of  the 
base  should  be  approximately  the  same  as  the  height  of  the  dam. 
The  mud-sills  should  be  made  from  large  timbers,  preferably  from 
16  to  20  inches  in  diameter.  They  should  lie  flat  on  the  bottom 
and  if  possible  be  fastened  to  bedrock  with  f-inch  drift  bolts.  A 
row  of  cross-skids  from  12  to  16  inches  in  diameter  is  then  laid 
from  6  to  8  feet  apart  across  the  mud-sills  in  a  direction  parallel 
with  the  stream  bed  thus  forming  cribs  from  6  by  6  to  8  by  8  feet 
in  size.  They  extend  from  the  front  to  the  rear  row  of  mud-sills 
into  which  they  are  notched  so  as  to  rest  firmly.  Peeled  logs 
are  placed  on  top  of  the  cross-skids  to  which  they  are  drift  bolted. 
These  lie  parallel  to  the  mud-sills.  Timbers  on  the  upstream  side 
of  the  dam  are  hewed  on  three  faces  and  fitted  to  each  other  so  that 


FLOATINO  AND   RAFTING  391 

a  tight  face  is  made  or  else  planks  must  be  spiked  to  the  timbers 
in  order  to  make  the  dam  tight. 

A  cribwork  is  built  up  until  it  reaches  the  level  of  the  stream 
bed,  when  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  ''sluiceway"  through 
which  logs  may  pass  and  also  gates  through  which  surplus  water 
may  be  wasted.  Sluiceways  are  generally  from  9  to  15  feet 
wide  and  are  placed  in  the  center  of  the  natural  stream  bed. 
A  sufficient  number  of  waste  gates  is  placed  on  either  side  to 
care  for  the  surplus  flood  water.  The  sides  of  the  sluiceway 
and  of  the  waste  ways,  both  of  which  carry  headworks  for  gates, 
are  made  stronger  and  of  larger  logs  than  the  rest  of  the  structure 
and  are  often  reinforced  with  piers.  In  building  waste  gates 
and  sluices  the  transverse  sills  are  cut  off  where  the  opening 
begins  and  the  cross-skids  which  form  the  side  walls  of  the  sluice 
have  smooth  hewed  faces  that  fit  closely  together.  The  cribwork 
of  the  dam  is  then  continued  to  the  desired  height.  When 
finished,  the  upstream  face  of  the  dam  is  calked  with  tow  or 
boarded  up  with  3-inch  plank  to  make  it  tight.  The  cribs  are 
roughly  floored  with  puncheons  and  filled  with  rock  to  weight 
them  down.  The  cover  of  boards  on  the  face  is  sometimes 
replaced  with  a  bed  of  gravel  although  both  boards  and  gravel 
are  frequently  used. 

Piers  are  often  constructed  on  each  side  of  the  sluiceway  above 
the  dam  to  confine  the  water,  strengthen  the  dam,  and  prevent 
the  structure  from  being  undermined. 

An  apron  also  extends  out  from  the  sluice  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  dam  to  carry  the  water  and  logs  away  and  to  protect  the 
base  of  the  structure. 

Where  the  stream  bed  is  unstable  a  row  of  piles  is  sometimes 
driven  across  the  dam  site  near  the  center  of  the  sluiceway. 
These  are  cut  off  at  the  stream  bed  level  and  prevent  the  bottom 
from  washing  out. 

Rafter  or  Self-loading  Dam.  —  This  type  is  cheaper  to  build 
than  a  crib  dam  and  is  used  where  a  large  head  of  water  is  not 
required. 

Rafter  dam  foundations  are  constructed  in  the  same  manner 
as  crib  dams  with  pockets  6  by  6,  or  8  by  8  feet  in  size.  The  mud- 
sills are  drift  bolted  to  bedrock  when  possible.  As  the  framework 
is  built  up,  the  face  of  the  dam  is  drawn  in  from  the  level  of  the 
stream  bed  so  that  the  upstream  face  has  an  angle  of  3  horizontal 


392 


LOGGING 


to  1  vertical.  The  dam  should  be  at  least  8  feet  wide  on  top. 
Two  thicknesses  of  3-inch  plank  or  hewed  poles  are  spiked  on  the 
sloping  face,  the  joints  being  alternated  and  the  whole  covered 
with  a  bed  of  gravel.     The  rear  mud-sill  is  protected  by  toe- 


r 

1     •  '  '"*^^<i 

_,_;.- ;r.--^.;^j.. — — — -v^ ;  - 

,-,  '>' 

-•:«! 

■        1 

Photograph  by  II.  R.  McMillan. 

Fig.  133.  —  The  Sluiceway  and  Apron  of  a  Rafter  Dam  on  the  Priest  River. 
Idaho. 


spiling  driven  down  to  hard  clay  or  bedrock,  and  the  cribs  are 
weighted  down  with  stone. 

The  frame  for  a  rafter  dam  is  frequently  supported  on  round 
or  squared  timbers  instead  of  cribwork. 

Pile  Dam.  —  The  buttresses  and  wings  of  this  type  of  dam  are 
formed  by  a  double  row  of  piles  driven  to  bedrock,  the  space 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING 


393 


between  them  being  filled  with  gravel  and  stone.  The  up- 
stream face  is  banked  up  with  brush  and  gravel  to  stop  leakage. 
This  type  is  not  in  frequent  use,  although  it  was  at  one  time 
common  in  the  Lake  States. 


SLUICE    GATES 

Lift  Gate.  —  This  is  the  most  common  type.     It  is  rectangular 
in    shape,    with    two    outside    frame    pieces  5  by  7  inches  in 


Fig.  134.  —  The  Upstream 


Form  of  Lift-Gate. 


cross-section  which  are  made  from  hardwood.  Intermediate 
"starts"  as  these  pieces  are  called  may  be  used  on  wide  gates. 
Mortises  2  by  5  inches  in  size  are  cut  into  the  edges  of  the  starts 
at  14-inch  intervals  and  2-  by  5-inch  hardwood  slats  which  are 
long  enough  to  give  the  required  gate  width  are  fitted  into  the 
mortises  on  opposite  starts.  The  starts  and  slats  form  the  skeleton 
frame  work  of  the  gate,  and  also  serve  as  points  under  which  the 
raising  lever  may  be  placed.  Two-inch  hardwood  planks  are 
then  spiked  crosswise  from  start  to  start,  the  ends  of  the  planks 
being  flush  with  the  edges  of  the  starts.  Gates  are  made  2  inches 
narrower  than  the  width  of  the  sluice  so  that  they  may  be  moved 
easily  up  and  down  the  slides.  The  slides  are  placed  directly 
above  one  of  the  cross  timbers  in  the  sluice,  so  that  there  will  be 


394 


LOGGING 


a  solid  base  under  the  gate  which  will  prevent  it  from  rebounding 
when  it  is  dropped  into  position.  The  slides  are  made  of  5-  by 
7-inch  hardwood  strips,  6  feet  longer  than  the  crib  height.  One 
slide  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  sluice  way  in  a  notch  16  inches 
long  and  5  inches  deep  which  is  cut  into  the  side  logs  of  the  sluice. 
Each  slide  timber  is  solidly  spiked  to  the  sluice  way  on  the  down- 
stream side  and  provides  a  backing  against  which  the  gate  works. 
The  groove  in  the  sluice  timbers  is  widened  to  22  inches  at  the 
top  and  a  slide  similar  to  those  placed  in  the  downstream  side  is 
spiked  in  place  in  order  to  keep  the  gate  in  position. 

Bear-trap  Gate.  —  This  type  of  gate  has  been  used  frequently 
in  Pennsylvania.     It  has  two  rectangular  leaves  each  of  which 


Fig.  135.  —  The  Bear-trap  Sluice  Gate. 

has  a  length  equal  to  the  width  of  the  sluice.  They  are  fastened 
to  the  bottom  of  the  sluice  by  hinges  on  which  they  turn.  The 
upstream  leaf  overlaps  the  downstream  one  when  the  leaves 
are  down  and  the  gate  open. 

The  gate  is  raised  by  the  pressure  of  water  from  the  upper 
pool,  which  is  conveyed  in  a  channel,  controlled  by  a  sluice 
gate,  to  a  chamber  (A),  Fig.  135,  constructed  under  the  gate. 
A  second  channel,  also  provided  with  a  gate  or  stop  cock,  con- 
nects this  chamber  with  the  lower  pool.  When  the  connection 
with  the  upper  pool  is  opened,  while  that  with  the  lower  pool 
is  closed,  water  from  the  upper  pool  fills  the  chamber  under 
the  gate.  This  causes  the  downstream  leaf  to  rise,  first  by 
flotation  and  then  by  the  impulse  from  the  flow  of  the  water. 
The  upper  leaf  is  raised  by  the  lower  leaf  which  slides  under  it, 
the  friction  being  reduced  by  rollers.  The  height  to  which  the 
gate  rises  is  limited  either  by  stay  chains,  or  by  a  wood  cleat 
nailed  on  the  under  side  of  the  upper  leaf.  In  lowering  the  gates 
the  operation  is  reversed,  the  connection  with  the  upper  pool 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING  395 

being  closed  while  that  with  the  lower  pool  is  opened.  The 
gate  may  be  made  to  assume  any  intermediate  position  by  reg- 
ulating the  extent  to  which  the  two  valves  controlling  the 
inlet  and  outlet  of  the  chamber  under  the  gate  are  opened. 

The  objections  to  this  form  of  gate  are:  (1)  the  overlap  of  the 
upper  leaf  over  the  lower  one  necessitates  lifting  a  considerable 
amount  of  water  when  the  gate  is  raised;  (2)  the  head  of  water 
obtainable  is  only  about  one-third  of  the  total  width  of  the 
leaves:  (3)  the  friction  between  the  two  leaves,  even  when  re- 
duced by  rollers  makes  it  difficult  to  operate  the  gate  smoothly; 
(4)  the  gate  must  be  made  in  one  section  and  if  the  gate  is  wide 
one  side  is  apt  to  go  up  faster  than  the  other  causing  twisting 
strains;  (5)  any  driftwood  or  stones  which  may  lodge  between 
the  leaves  make  the  lowering  of  the  gate  impossible  until  the 
obstruction  is  removed.  However,  water  can  be  let  out  of  the 
reservoir  very  rapidly  and  the  gate  can  be  raised  and  lowered  by 
one  man  as  no  special  effort  is  required,  both  of  which  are  ad- 
vantages. 

Logging  dams  with  "bear-trap"  gates  80  feet  wide  have  been 
built  and  operated  in  Wisconsin 

Half-moon  Gates.  —  A  dam  constructed  to  store  water  for  log 
sluices  often  has  a  gate  called  the  "half-moon."  It  is  not  used 
for  wide  sluiceways  nor  for  large  heads  of  water.  The  gate,  which 
is  slightly  curved,  fits  tightly  into  the  sluiceway  with  the  convex 
face  upstream.  It  is  supported  by  four  arms  from  16  to  24  feet 
long,  which  are  attached  to  a  beam  hung  on  bearings  placed  on 
either  side  of  the  top  of  the  sluiceway.  A  platform  erected  over 
the  gate  supports  a  drum  actuated  by  a  hand  wheel  with  gearing, 
or  by  a  hand  lever.  Chains  are  attached  to  either  side  of  the 
gate  head  and  are  passed  up  over  the  drum.  The  gate,  which 
swings  through  an  arc  of  a  circle  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  supporting  braces,  is  raised  by  winding  in  the  chain. 

Needle  or  Bracket  Gate.  —  Splash  dams,  especially  in  the  Appa- 
lachian mountain  and  Pennsylvania  regions,  are  often  provided 
with  needle  gates  which  are  made  of  hewed  or  sawed  3-  by  5-inch, 
or  3-  by  6-inch  scantlings  placed  vertically  across  the  opening, 
thus  forming  a  solid  front.  The  needles  are  supported  at  the 
lower  ends  by  a  cross-beam  or  groove  cut  in  the  base  sill.  The 
tops  rest  against  a  cross-beam  to  which  the  needles  are  attached 
by  short  chains.     The  needles  are  raised  either  by  a  windlass, 


396 


LOGGING 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING 


397 


a  crowbar  or  a  lever.  They  are  especially  serviceable  for  dams 
at  storage  reservoirs  through  which  logs  are  not  sluiced,  but 
where  it  is  necessary  to  suddenly  release  large  quantities  of  water 
in  order  to  carry  logs  over  very  rough  stretches.  The  needles 
may  be  liberated  by  breaking  the  bottom  beam  by  a  charge  of 
dynamite. 

Barn-door  Gate.  —  This  has  one  or  two  heavy  gates  or  doors 
hung  vertically  on  bearings  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  sluice. 


>^\,^2!»f^ 


Fig.  137. 


An  Upstream  View  of  a  Rafter  Dam  having  a  Needle  Gate. 
Appalachian  Mountains. 


Double  gates  are  held  in  place,  when  closed,  by  an  upright  beam 
in  the  center  of  the  sluiceway,  and  single  gates  by  a  sunilar 
beam  placed  on  one  side  of  the  sluiceway.  A  horizontal  pole 
is  sometimes  used  instead  of  an  upright  one  to  hold  the  gate 
shut.  These  gates  have  been  used  in  Pennsylvania  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  Appalachian  mountains,  but  they  are  not  popular 
because  the  force  of  the  water  throws  them  open  so  violently  that 
they  are  often  damaged.  A  light  drop  gate  often  is  built  to  shut 
off  the  flow  of  water  while  the  large  gates  are  being  closed. 


398  LOGGING 


LOG    CARRIERS 


Loggers  operating  near  the  headwaters  of  streams  occasion- 
ally find  it  desirable  to  transfer  logs  from  one  water  course  to 
another  in  order  to  bring  them  down  the  stream  on  which  the 
manufacturing  plant  is  located. 

A  log  carrier  similar  to  the  log  haul-up  in  a  sawmill  is  used 
to  elevate  the  logs  to  the  maximum  height  desired,  and  a  log 
sluice  with  a  V-box  4  or  5  feet  high  and  7  or  8  feet  across  the 
top  then  carries  the  logs  to  the  stream  on  the  other  watershed. 
Water  for  the  sluiceway  is  furnished  by  a  series  of  pumps  of 
large  capacity. 

An  interesting  example  of  a  device  of  this  sort  was  a  log  carrier 
and  sluice  constructed  in  the  Nipissing  District,  Ontario,  Canada, 
to  divert  logs  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Muskoka  River  to 
those  of  the  Trent  River.  The  logs  were  first  transported  up  a 
log  carrier  300  feet  long  to  a  reservoir  80  feet  long,  7  feet  wide 
and  8  feet  deep,  located  40  feet  above  the  initial  level.  A  450- 
horse-power  engine  furnished  power  for  the  jack  works  at  the 
reservoir,  and  also  for  a  set  of  centrifugal  pumps  with  a  capacity 
of  20,000  gallons  per  minute  which  provided  water  for  the  reser- 
voir, and  for  a  log  sluice  which  was  3000  feet  long  and  had  a  4.5 
per  cent  grade.  The  logs  as  they  reached  the  foot  of  the  sluice 
were  transported  by  a  log  carrier  up  a  100-foot  rise  to  a  lake  |- 
mile  distant,  where  they  were  placed  in  a  boom  and  towed  to 
the  head  of  the  river  down  which  they  were  driven.  The  second 
carrier  comprised  eight  sections,  each  with  a  massive  jack  works 
driven  by  rope  transmission  from  a  400-horse-power  horizontal 
water  wheel  located  near  the  center  of  the  haul-up.  Water  for 
power  purposes  was  brought  in  a  flume  from  the  terminus  of  the 
carrier.  The  conveyor  chains  were  made  with  1-inch  round 
links  and  had  log  seats  at  intervals  of  8  feet.  The  capacity  of 
the  carrier  was  10,000  logs  in  twenty-two  hours. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  STREAM  BED  AND  BANKS 

Before  a  stream  can  be  driven  it  must  be  cleared  of  fallen 
timber,  snags  and  boulders.  The  fallen  timber  often  is  cut  into 
short  lengths  with  an  ax  and  allowed  to  drift  downstream,  or 
is  hauled  out  on  the  banks.  Snags,  rocks  and  similar  obstruc- 
tions are  removed  with  dynamite.  This  work  is  done  in  the 
summer  and  early  fall  when  the  water  is  low. 


FLOATING   AND   RAFTING 


399 


Pter  Dams  and  Abutments 

Pier  dams  are  cribwork  structures  used  to  narrow  the  channel 
of  a  stream,  guide  logs  past  rocks  and  other  obstructions,  and 
in  some   cases   to    block    an  old 
channel  and  divert  the  water  into 
another  course. 

They  resemble  the  piers  of  crib 
dams  having  cribs  from  6  to  8 
feet  square,  and  mud-sills  fastened 
to  bedrock  or  firmly  anchored  in 
the  stream  bed.  The  cribs  are 
loaded  with  rock  to  give  them 
stability. 

Abutments  are  used  to  pro- 
tect the  banks  of  streams  during 
flood    time,    and    prevent    them 

from  being  worn  away.  The  usual  form  is  a  cribwork  of 
timl^er  built  into  the  bank.  The  space  between  the  shore  and 
the  timbers  is  filled  with  rock  to  prevent  the  bank  earth  from 
washing  out.  Where  streams  pass  through  wide  bottoms  and 
the  banks  are  too  low  to  confine  the  flood  water,  an  artificial 


Fig.  138.  —  An  Abutment  for  the 
Protection  of  Stream  Banks. 


'^m-. 


Fig.  139. 


An  Artificial  Channel  used  to  confine  Flood  Water  in  a 
Narrow  Bed. 


channel  is  sometimes  created  by  constructing  false  banks  of 
lumber.  Cribwork  supports  a  strong  frame  of  timbers  on  which 
heavy  planking  is  nailed. 

Booms.  —  Backwaters,  pockets,  low  banks,  obstructions  and 
shallow  places  where  logs  are  apt  to  be  lost  or  stranded  occur 
on  most  streams.  Booms,  made  of  long  sticks  of  timber 
fastened  together  end  to  end  and  moored  to  objects  on  shore  or 
to  piling  or  cribs  in  the  stream,  are  used  to  confine  the  logs  to  the 
channel.  Booms  are  also  used  to  aid  drivers  in  sluicing  logs 
through  dams,  for  confining  logs  at  assorting  gaps  and  storage 


400 


LOGGING 


points,  and  for  towing.  They  are  built  in  many  forms  and  are 
called  sheer  booms  when  used  to  confine  logs  for  storage  purposes 
in  given  channels  and  towing  booms  when  used  to  impound  logs 
for  towing  purposes.  They  are  again  designated  as  limber  and 
stiff  booms  according  to  their  manner  of  construction.  Both 
sheer  booms  and  towing  booms  are  often  of  the  same  pattern  and 
are  known  as  the  "plug"  boom,  "sheep-shank"  boom,  "chain" 
boom,  "bracket"  boom,  "fin"  boom,  and  "barge"  boom.  The 
first  three  are  single-log  limber  booms,  the  names  referring  to 
the  manner  of  attachment  one  to  the  other;  the  bracket  boom  is 


DOG  AND  CHAIN 


CLEVIS  AND  RLNG 


Fig.  140.  —  The  Methods  of  fastening  Boom  Sticks  with  Chains. 


a  stiff  boom  several  logs  wide;  and  the  fin  and  barge  booms  are 
either  stiff  or  limber. 

Plug  booms,  also  known  as  "plug  and  knock  down"  booms, 
have  logs  fastened  end  to  end  with  short  pieces  of  rope  or  withes 
the  ends  of  which  are  passed  through  holes  bored  in  the  ends  of 
the  boom  and  securely  fastened  by  plugs. 

Booms  of  this  character  are  serviceable  as  a  makeshift  when 
stronger  fastenings  are  not  available. 

Sheep-shank  booms  are  temporar}^  booms  fastened  together  by 
rope,  a  half  hitch  being  made  around  the  ends  of  the  logs.  The}^ 
are  used  for  repairing  breaks  in  other  booms  where  rope  is  the 
only  ef}uipment  available. 

Chain  booms  are  the  common  form  of  limber  boom  in  use  to- 
day. Short  rhains  are  used  to  connect  the  logs,  and  are  fastened 
in  several  different  ways:  (1)  by  a  chain  and  dogs;  (2)  by  a  ring 
and  toggle :   (3)  by  a  clevis,  making  an  endless  chain.     The  latter 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING 


401 


form  is  used  very  commonly  for  towing  purposes  and  for  storage 
areas  because  the  booms  can  be  readily  uncoupled. 

The  bracket  boom  is  a  stiff  boom  made  three  or  four  logs  wide. 
The  logs  are  fastened  together  l^y  short  boards  nailed  cross- 
wise on  the  boom,  or  by  short  poles  fastened  to  the  logs  by  means 
of  wooden  plugs,  chains  or  withes.  They  also  are  bound  together 
with  chains  which  encircle  the  boom.  They  are  stronger  than 
single  booms  and  are  used  on  the  upstream  side  of  splash  dams 


Fig.  141.  —  A  Fin  Boom.     a.     A  movable  fin  boom  both  open  and  closed. 
b.     The  arrangement  of  l)oom  and  fins  for  a  permanent  fin  boom. 


for  converging  logs  toward  the  sluiceway,   and  are  also  used 
around  storage  areas  and  assorting  gaps  as  runways  for  men. 

The  fin  boom  is  often  employed  to  change  the  course  of  logs 
from  one  side  of  a  stream  to  the  other,  or  to  guide  them  past  obstruc- 
tions. It  is  especially  serviceable  on  a  navigable  stream  where 
permanent  booms  cannot  be  maintained,  and  in  places  where 
it  is  not  feasible  to  moor  the  outer  end  of  the  boom  to  a  crib 
or  pile.  The  shore  end  must  always  be  upstream.  The  fin 
])oom  may  be  either  limber  or  stiff,  preferably  the  latter,  and 
may  be  permanent  or  temporary.  It  has  a  main  boom  to  which 
the  ends  of  pole  or  plank  fins  are  attached  by  chains  at  regular 
intervals.  When  the  boom  must  be  opened  and  closed  at  fre- 
quent intervals  the  outer  ends  of  the  fins,  which  act  as  rudders, 


402 


LOGGING 


are  connected  by  a  rope  or  cable  which  passes  around  a  drum 
or  power-winch  located  on  shore,  while  on  stationary  booms 
the  fins  are  weighted  at  the  ends  to  give  them  rigidity,  and  are 
fixed  in  a  permanent  position  by  means  of  a  brace  extending 
from  the  fin  to  the  main  boom. 

The  boom  may  be  thrown  across  a  stream  at  any  angle  less 
than  90  degrees  by  winding  in  or  letting  out  the  cable,  thus  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  the  angle  between  the  boom  and  rudders. 
The  boom  may  be  brought  to  shore  by  letting  out  cable. 


.-#••.. 


'SL'M. "  *• 


.^ggo- 


Piers  placed 


River  to  hold  Storage  Booms.     Minnesota. 


A  barge  boom  is  a  limber  boom,  three  or  four  logs  wide,  the 
upper  end  of  which  is  fastened  to  a  barge  anchored  in  midstream 
and  the  downstream  end  to  a  tree  or  stump  on  shore.  A  boom 
of  this  character  is  serviceable  in  a  navigable  stream  where  per- 
manent booms  cannot  be  used,  and  where  the  stream  bed  can- 
not be  obstructed  with  piling  or  cribs.  It  is  often  used  in  con- 
nection with  a  fin  boom  when  it  is  desired  to  shunt  logs  to  one 
side  of  a  wide  stream. 


STORAGE   AND    SORTING    FACILITIES 

On  all  large  streams  on  which  logs  are  transported,  the  timber 
of  various  companies  becomes  intermingled  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  sort  out  the  property  of  each  owner  at  destination.  For 
this   purpose  assorting   works  are   maintained  at   points  where 


FLOATING   AXD   RAFTING 


403 


logs  are  to  be  manufactured,  and  extensive  log  storage  facilities 
also  are  often  provided.  Both  the  assorting  and  storage  works 
are  generally  owned  by  corporations. 

The  storage  booms  form  large  pockets  extending  sometimes 
for  miles  along  one  or  both  sides  of  the  stream,  into  which  logs 
are  shunted  until  the  assorters  are  ready  for  them,  and  also 
to  hold  assorted  logs  until  wanted  for  manufacture.  The  outer 
boundaries  of  these  pockets  are  formed  by  single  booms  made 


Photograph  by  R.  B.  Miller. 

Fig.  143.  —  Log  Storing  and  Assorting  Works  on  the  St.  John's  River.     New- 
Brunswick. 


from  logs  2  or  3  feet  in  diameter  fastened  together  with  1-  or  Ij- 
inch  chains.  The  boom  sticks  are  held  in  place  in  midstream 
by  piers  or  nests  of  piling  placed  75  or  100  feet  apart. 

Piers  are  built  of  round  logs  from  16  to  24  inches  in  diameter 
and  of  various  sizes  depending  on  the  character  of  stream  in 
which  they  are  placed,  and  the  amount  of  strain  they  must  with- 
stand. 

In  cold  regions,  they  are  built  when  the  stream  has  an  ice  cover- 
ing strong  enough  to  bear  up  heavy  loads.  An  opening  is  cut 
through  the  ice  slightly  larger  than  the  base  of  the  crib,  and  in 
this  opening  the  crib  is  built.  The  foundation  timbers  are  placed 
in  position  and  a  floor  of  poles  or  planks  placed  over  them.  As 
the  crib  framework  is  built  up,  the  structure  is  loaded  with 
stones,  thus  sinking  it  as  the  work  proceeds.     Cribs  are  some- 


404  LOGGING 

times  built  on  tiie  ice  and  when  nearing  completion,  a  hole  is 
cut  large  enough  to  permit  the  framework  to  be  sunk.  This 
method  is  not  always  as  satisfactory  as  the  first  one  described 
because  ice  may  remain  under  the  bottom  of  the  crib  and  later 
cause  it  to  settle  unevenly.  When  the  bottom  is  uneven,  the 
crib  must  have  some  open  pockets  on  the  outer  edge  so  that  when 
it  touches  bottom  enough  rock  ballast  may  be  dropped  down  on 
the  low  side  to  make  a  level  base.  This  may  be  done  by  setting 
spars  at  the  corners  of  the  crib  and  raising  the  low  corners  to  a 
level  by  means  of  blocks  and  tackle.  When  cribs  must  be  built 
in  open  water,  they  are  constructed  on  inclined  ways  at  some 
convenient  point  along  the  shore,  and  when  they  have  reached 
a  height  sufficient  to  form  a  substantial  raft,  they  are  launched 
and  then  built  up  to  a  height  slightly  greater  than  the  depth  of 
water  in  which  they  are  to  be  placed.  They  are  then  floated  to  the 
permanent  site,  loaded  with  stone  and  sunk  to  the  stream  bed. 

When  the  crib  is  to  rest  on  a  soft  mud  bottom,  the  load 
must  be  distributed  over  an  area  greater  than  the  crib  base. 
Stones  are  thrown  on  the  bottom  and  when  a  sufficient  quantity 
are  in  place  the  bed  is  roughly  leveled  and  the  crib  sunk  in  position 
on  top  of  it. 

The  logs  from  which  the  crib  framework  is  made  should  be 
notched  where  they  cross  each  other  and  firmly  drift  bolted  to- 
gether. The  outward  thrust  of  the  rock  ballast  may  be  over- 
come by  nailing  round  poles  in  the  angle  where  poles  cross  or 
by  quartering  logs  and  nailing  these  pieces  in  the  angle. 

In  some  cases  the  cribs  are  built  rectangular  in  form  above 
the  water,  but  usually  the  upstream  face  is  drawn  in  at  an  angle 
of  from  30  to  40  degrees  and  planked  over.  The  sloping  face 
prevents  ice  and  driftwood  from  forming  a  jam  behind  the  crib 
and  causing  it  to  be  carried  away.  A  common  method  of  attaching 
the  boom  sticks  to  the  cribs  is  to  drive  a  pile  in  the  center  of  the 
crib.  After  a  large  iron  ring  has  been  loosely  fitted  over  this 
pile  the  boom  is  fastened  by  a  chain  to  the  ring,  and  as  the  water 
rises  and  falls  the  ring  slips  up  and  down  with  the  chain.  When 
piling  is  used  instead  of  cribs  a  nest  of  three  or  four  piles  are 
driven  together  and  bound  with  chains  or  cable. 

Storage  booms  are  usually  taken  in  and  the  chains  repaired 
after  the  drive  is  over.  They  are  replaced  early  in  the  spring  as 
soon  as  the  ice  leaves  the  stream. 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING 


405 


The  capacity  of  storage  booms  varies  with  the  size  and  length 
of  timber  handled.  The  following  table^  shows  the  area  in 
acres  required  to  store  spruce  logs  of  several  sizes  and  lengths, 
and  also  the  number  of  boom  logs  required  to  impound  given 


.9  a 


CANA'DIAN  SIDE  Or  SORlINq  GAP 
ci       -       ^  *  2- 


o  O     ^     o      v 

AMERICAN  SIDE  OF*' SORTING  gXp 

"^       ^        -*  ■»  -a      * 

Fig.  144.  —  A  Sorting  Gap  on  the  St.  John's  River  near  Fredericton.     New 

Brunswick. 

quantities  of  timber  when  the  logs  are  forced  into  a  compact 
body  by  the  current  of  the  stream,  all  sticks  floating  on  the 
surface. 

The   average   storage    capacity   of   medium-sized   white   pine 
and  yellow  pine  logs  is  approximately  250,000  board  feet  per  acre. 


Average 
length 

.Average 
diameter 

Average  scale 
per  piece  - 

Area  for 

storage  of 

1,000,000  feet 

Feet 

Inches 

Board  feet 

Acres 

15.3 

5.9 

21.4 

13.41 

20.5 

6.7 

31.8 

11.94 

24.6 

10.4 

90.7 

8.15 

30.0 

15.6 

249.48 

5.34 

2  Blodgett  rule. 

Assorting  Equipment.  —  The  main  feature  is  the  assorting  gap 
where  logs  are  separated  and  deflected  into  the  storage  pockets 
down  stream.  The  usual  type  of  assorting  gap  has  two  opposite 
rafts  or  bracket  booms  placed  from  30  to  50  feet  apart  and  con- 
nected by  an  elevated  runway   on  which    the    assort  ers  stand 

*  See  Boom  Areas,  by  A.  M.  Carter,  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  X,  No.  1, 
p.  15. 


406 


LOGGING 


and  separate  the  logs  by  marks  as  they  pass  under  them.  The 
gaps  are  built  in  many  forms  depending  upon  the  amount  of  work 
to  be  done  and  the  physical  conditions  which  are  encountered. 
Fig.  144  shows  an  assorting  gap  on  the  St.  John's  River  near 
Fredericton,  New  Brunswick.  This  has  two  block  piers  50  feet 
apart  and  behind  them  are  rafts  built  of  five  logs  each,  so  arranged 
that  five  gaps,  each  22  feet  wide,  are  formed  on  each  side.  The 
space  between  opposite  rafts  is  spanned  by  4-foot  plank  bridges 
on  which  the  assorters  stand.     The  division  boom  shown  extends 


Fig.  145.  —  A  Patent  Assorting  Works  used  in  the  Appalachian  Region. 


downstream  for  2000  feet  to  sheer  booms  which  deflect  the  logs 
to  the  American  and  Canadian  sides.  Seventy-five  men  are 
employed  at  this  gap  and  during  the  season  150,000,000  board 
feet  of  logs  are  handled. 

An  assorting  device  used  in  the  Appalachian  region  is  shown  in 
Fig.  145a.  This  has  a  sheer  boom  (A)  moored  to  a  tree  on  the  bank 
and  braced  by  a  secondary  boom  at  (B).  The  ])oom  (A)  is  held 
in  place  in  the  stream  by  cables  attached  as  shown  in  Fig.  1456. 
The  lower  end  of  the  boom  is  broken  at  (C)  and  may  be  opened 
to  allow  logs  and  driftwood  to  pass  downstream.  An  assorting 
platform  (/)),  with  braces  (E)  and  (F),  is  provided  on  which 
the  workers  stand  and  shunt  the  logs  to  be  stored  into  the  pocket 
(G).     The  remainder  pass  downstream  to  other  storage  pockets 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING  407 

or  to  points  below.  The  boom  (//)  is  elevated  by  means  of  a 
built-up  raft  (Fig.  145c)  to  allow  logs  to  pass  underneath  into 
the  storage  pocket. 

Rafting  Works.  —  These  may  be  located  below  assorting  gaps, 
at  the  head  of  still  water  on  non-navigable  streams,  or  at  the 
terminus  of  a  logging  railroad,  or  other  form  of  transport  along 
the  shore  of  a  lake  or  at  tidewater.  The  form  of  the  rafting 
works  is  governed  by  the  character  of  the  stream  or  body  of 
water  and  by  the  form  of  raft  constructed.  On  rivers  where 
rafts  are  limited  in  width  because  of  the  size  of  the  channel, 
they  are  made  long  and  narrow  and  the  rafting  works,  if  logs  of 
numerous  owners  are  handled,  may  have  many  pockets  whose 
boundaries  are  marked  by  bracket  booms  with  plank  runways 
which  are  held  in  position  by  piling. 

On  the  Great  Lakes  where  logs  are  towed  loose  in  booms, 
storage  areas  off-shore  are  provided  in  which  logs  are  held  until 
a  sufficient  number  have  accumulated.  These  areas  are  bounded 
by  heavy  sheer  booms  held  in  place  by  piling.  The  rafts  are 
made  up  by  surrounding  a  group  of  logs  with  heavy  towing 
booms  and  towing  them  out  of  the  storage  areas. 

Along  some  of  the  tidewaters  of  the  Altantic  seaboard  logs 
are  made  into  bundles  and  towed  to  the  mills.  The  rafting 
works  here  have  an  unloading  wharf  which  projects  into  the 
stream,  and  special  devices  for  holding  chains  and  cables  while 
the  logs  are  being  bundled.^ 

On  the  tidewater  of  Puget  Sound,  where  large  numbers  of  logs 
are  rafted  to  the  mills,  a  rafting  works  has  an  unloading  dock 
several  hundred  feet  long.  This  projects  into  the  storage  area 
which  is  enclosed  by  sheer  booms  held  in  place  by  piles  driven 
about  70  feet  apart.  A  rafting  pocket  75  feet  wide  and  800  feet 
long  is  enclosed  in  booms  and  in  this  the  rafts  are  built  in  sections. 

Ocean-going  rafts  are  built  on  or  near  tidewater  in  the  North- 
west. The  usual  storage  area  is  provided  and  in  addition,  cradles 
or  similar  structures  in  which  the  rafts  are  built.^ 

THE    DRIVE 

The  season  in  which  logs  are  transported  by  water  varies  in 
different  regions.  In  the  Northeast  and  the  Lake  States  loggers 
depend  primarily  on  the  spring  flood  waters  which  are  caused  by 

1  See  page  425. 

2  See  page  427. 


408  LOGGING 

the  melting  snow  and  hence  the  drive  must  begin  as  soon  as 
the  ice  goes  out  of  the  streams,  since  the  water  supply  gradually 
decreases  as  the  season  advances,  and  on  the  smaller  streams 
may  be  insufficient  by  early  summer. 

In  the  Appalachian  mountains  and  in  the  South  where  the 
snowfall  is  limited  or  absent,  reliance  is  placed  on  freshets  or 
heavy  rainfalls  for  water  to  float  the  logs  and  the  drive  is  conducted 
whenever  water  is  available.  On  large  bodies  of  water  like  the 
Great  Lakes,  Puget  Sound  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  the  governing 
factor  is  the  storm  period,  consequently  the  summer  months  are 
preferred. 

Conduct  of  Drives.  —  The  business  conduct  of  drives  on  streams 
may  be  under  the  control  of  one  man,  a  group  of  individuals,  or 
a  corporation,  depending  upon  the  ownership  of  the  timber. 
Rafting  is  carried  on  both  by  individuals  and  corporations. 

Drives  upon  large  rivers  often  originate  on  numerous  small 
streams,  from  each  one  of  which  come  the  logs  of  an  individual 
or  a  company.  Under  these  circumstances  the  small  stream 
improvements  are  made  and  the  drive  upon  it  is  conducted  by 
one  firm.  On  reaching  the  larger  stream  the  logs  of  all  parties 
become  intermingled  and  the  drive  is  then  conducted  as  a  "union" 
or  corporation  drive. 

On  union  drives  the  expense  of  improvements  and  labor  hire 
is  apportioned  among  the  companies  and  individuals  according 
to  the  amount  of  timber  each  has  in  the  stream.  The  direct  con- 
trol of  the  drive  is  vested  usually  in  the  interested  members,  in 
rotation,  and  each  one  has  an  employee  at  the  assorting  gap  when 
the  logs  are  assorted. 

A  more  common  method  is  the  control  of  the  main  drive  by 
boom  companies  chartered  by  the  State  in  which  the  business 
in  conducted.  The  stream,  if  long,  may  be  divided  into  several 
sections,  each  in  charge  of  a  separate  corporation.  The  member- 
ship of  such  corporations  is  usually  confined  to  loggers  who  use 
the  river  for  log  transportation ;  however,  it  often  does  not  include 
some  of  the  smaller  operators.  Many  of  the  boom  companies 
operating  in  the  Lake  States,  especially  on  the  Mississippi  River 
and  its  tributaries,  have  a  limited  capital  stock  divided  among 
a  few  shareholders. 

Another  form  of  membership  is  represented  by  companies, 
such  as  the  St.  John's  River  Log  Driving  Company,  operating 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING  409 

in  the  vicinity  of  Fredericton,  Xew  Brunswick.^  Each  logger 
having  100,000  board  feet  or  more  passing  through  the  limits  of  the 
company  is  eligible  to  membership,  on  filing  with  the  Secretary 
a  statement  of  all  logs  placed  in  the  stream  and  their  point  of 
origin,  a  list  of  all  log  marks  used,  and  certain  other  required  facts. 
On  filing  this  report  the  applicant  becomes  a  member  and  is 
entitled  to  one  vote  for  each  100,000  feet  of  logs  he  has  in  the 
drive.  Thus  every  logger  of  any  consequence  has  a  voice  in  the 
administration  of  the  drive. 

All  states  having  large  streams  which  are  used  for  the  transport 
of  logs  have  laws  relating  to  the  rights  and  privileges  of  loggers 
and  setting  forth  the  duties  and  liabihties  of  incorporated  boom 
companies.  The  charters  of  boom  companies  usually  regulate 
the  prices  to  be  charged  for  handling  and  rafting  logs.  The 
State  laws  of  Minnesota  provide  for  inspection  and  scale  of  logs 
in  the  booms  by  a  surveyor-general  and  his  deputies,  for  which 
the  boom  company  is  charged  a  fee  for  all  logs  scaled.  The 
surveyor-general  is  empowered  to  seize  and  sell  logs  in  case  of 
non-payment  of  the  fee. 

On  some  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  River,  especially  on  the  Big 
Sandy  down  which  great  quantities  of  logs  have  been  floated, 
the  practice  is  for  the  individuals  to  drive  their  logs  loose  from 
the  headwaters  of  the  small  streams  to  private  rafting  works 
located  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Big  Sandy  where  the  logs  are 
made  into  rafts  by  contract,  floated  to  the  mouth  of  the  river 
and  there  taken  in  charge  by  the  owner  and  towed  down  the 
Ohio  River  to  the  mills. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  logs  are  brought  to  tidewater  by 
logging  railroads  and  made  into  rafts,  usually  at  private  rafting 
works. 

A.      LOG    MARKS    AND    BRANDS 

Some  method  of  identifying  the  logs  of  different  owners  when 
they  are  assorted  at  destination  is  imperative  and  lumbermen 
have  adopted  the  system  of  branding  their  logs  at  the  skidways 
in  the  forest  or  at  the  landing  on  the  stream.  The  brands  are 
numerals  or  characters,  mounted  on  the  head  of  a  sledge  ham- 
mer and  stamped  at  several  places  on  both  ends  of  the  logs  so 

1  St.  John's  River  Log  Driving  Operations  by  G.  Scott  Grimmer,  Canada 
Lumberman  and  Woodworker,  Vol.  XXXII,  No.  11,  June,  1912,  p.  28. 


410  LOGGING 

that  no  matter  what  portion  of  the  log  is  above  water  the  brand 
can  be  readily  seen. 

To  further  aid  in  log  identification  the  use  of  a  bark  mark, 
which  is  a  design  cut  on  the  log  near  one  end,  is  obligatory 
in  some  states.  This  may  be  made  either  by  the  sa\vyers  when 
they  cut  the  trees  or  at  the  landing.  A  bark  mark  is  often  used 
in  connection  with  a  "catch  mark"  painted  on  the  ends  of  the 
log.  In  such  cases  a  brand  is  not  used.  The  number  of  brands 
and  marks  used  on  a  given  stream  is  sometimes  great,  each  logger 
often  having  several  to  distinguish  logs  coming  from  given  streams 

LV0W/VVfK  M<MXA/eO 

1  2        3        '4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12 

OX  ll/X  O+l-t^/r^ATh  F? 

13   14    15  16   17     18  19   20   21       22      23   24     25    26 

V>i:4^j-€UwQiivv  ^a 

27    28   29  30   3L    32    33    34   35  36  37    33    39   40 

Fig.  146.  —  Some  Mississippi  River  Log  Marks.  1-10,  monograms;  11, 
blaze  notch;  12,  notch  girdle;  13,  scalp;  14,  cross;  15,  notch;  16,  dagger; 
17,  cross  girdle;  18,  diamond;  19,  twenty;  20,  thirty;  21,  umbrella;  22, 
saw  horse;  23,  fork;  24,  straight  S;  25,  flag;  26,  pine  tree;  27,  inverted 
A  with  scalps;  28,  fifty;  29,  pot  hook;  30,  fish  hook;  31,  bar  C;  32,  box 
with  ears;  33,  wild  goose;  34,  sheep  head;  35,  crow  foot;  36,  double  dagger; 
37,  fifteen;  38,  triangle;  39,  star  girdle;  40,  turtle. 

or  sections  of  land.  Some  loggers  use  a  new  set  each  season  in 
order  to  keep  the  logs  of  different  years  separate.  On  the  upper 
Mississippi  river  more  than  2000  log  marks  have  been  registered 
with  the  Surveyor-general,  and  over  1600  have  been  in  use  during 
a  single  season. 

The  marks  and  brands  represent  a  great  variety  of  figures 
comprising  single  letters,  monograms  of  two  or  three  letters,  and 
many  figures  which  are  often  given  characteristic  names  by  river 
drivers. 

Log  brands  have  always  been  extensivel}^  used  in  the  Adiron- 
dack region,  while  in  Maine  bark  marks  are  common.  Both 
forms  are  used  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  its  tributaries,  and 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING  411 

also  in  many  parts  of  the  Appalachian  region.  Brands  are  in 
extensive  use  on  the  Pacific  Coast  where  logs  are  transported 
by  water,  but  are  seldom  used  in  the  interior. 

When  registered^  with  some  designated  state  or  county  official 
(the  Surveyor-general  in  Minnesota,  in  most  other  states  the 
County  Clerk  of  the  county  in  which  the  head  office  is  located) 
brands  constitute  trademarks  of  the  individuals  or  firms  regis- 
tering them,  and  their  rights  to  the  timber  so  marked  are  fully 
protected  by  law. 

The  obliteration  or  removal  of  brands  or  bark  marks  ("de- 
horning") is  regarded  as  a  felony  in  most  states.  The  highest 
courts  of  some  states^  have  held  where  logs  are  presumptively 
marked  according  to  law  and  are  floated  down  a  stream  and  the 
owners  annually  endeavored  to  recover  those  that  sank  and 
became  imbedded  in  the  stream,  that  such  logs  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  lost  or  abandoned  property  whether  the  marks  are  dis- 
tinguishable or  not. 

Loggers,  therefore,  do  not  lose  their  property  rights  in  lost 
logs  if  originally  they  were  properly  marked  by  the  owner,  and 
he  used  due  diligence  each  year  to  recover  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  according  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Minnesota,^  logs  in 
water  are  abandoned  when  not  in  the  possession  of  or  under  the 
control  of  any  person,  and  which  have  no  distinctive  mark  or 
marks  on  them  that  have  been  recorded  with  the  proper  officials. 
Such  logs  are  the  property  of  the  person  who  collects  them  and 
causes  them  to  be  marked.  These  logs  are  known  as  "prize" 
logs  and  on  union  drives  they  are  divided  in  rotation,  as  they  pass 
the  assorting  gap,  among  the  loggers  having  timber  in  the  stream. 
When  the  drive  is  conducted  by  a  boom  company  all  prize  logs 

^  "Failure  of  owner  to  comply  with  Compiled  Laws,  section  5083,  providing 
for  the  recording  of  log  marks,  was  only  effective  to  deprive  the  owner  of  the 
statutory  presumption  of  ownership  of  logs  unmarked  with  the  recorded  mark, 
and  did  not  deprive  him  of  his  property  in  logs,  the  title  to  which  he  might 
establish  by  other  means,  including  an  unrecorded  mark  used  by  him." 
Whitman  vs.  Muskegon  Log  Lifting  and  Operating  Co.  Supreme  Court 
of  Michigan,  116  Northwestern  614. 

2  See  Whitman  vs.  Mu.skegon  Log  Lifting  and  Operating  Co.  Supreme 
Court  of  Michigan,  116  Northwestern  614. 

3  See  Astell  vs.  McCuish,  Supreme  Court  of  Minnesota,  124  Northwestern 
Reporter,  458. 


412  LOGGING 

caught  in  the  booms  are  held  as  the  property  of  the  company  and 
are  sold  at  auction  to  the  highest  bidder. 


B.       SPECIES    THAT    FLOAT 

The  majority  of  the  coniferous  species  indigenous  to  the  United 
States  will  float,  although  there  is  a  hea^y  loss  in  driving  woods 
such  as  southern  yellow  pine,  green  hemlock,  and  the  butts 
of  larch  and  redwood.  The  buoyancy  of  hemlock  is  increased  by 
peeling  the  timber  and  allowing  it  to  season  for  a  short  period 
before  placing  it  in  the  water. 

Hardwood  logs,  such  as  basswood,  poplar,  and  cucumber,  float 
well  and  can  be  driven,  although  basswood  is  apt  to  become 
discolored,  which  greatly  depreciates  its  value.  Oak,  beech, 
maple,  birch,  and  other  heay>'  hardwoods  can  only  be  floated 
with  difficulty  unless  they  are  especially  prepared  or  are  rafted 
with  lighter  species.  Some  loggers  cut  and  peel  oak  in  July, 
August,  September,  and  October,  place  it  on  skids  near  the  bank, 
and  allow  it  to  dry  out  from  sixty  to  ninety  days.  It  then 
becomes  light  enough  to  float  for  short  periods. 

Another  method^  is  to  peel  and  season  the  logs,  then  paint 
the  ends  mth  two  or  three  coats  of  paint  and  raft  with  lighter 
species.  Holes  also  may  be  bored  into  logs  and  plugged  up 
so  as  to  form  air  spaces  and  thus  increase  the  buoyancy  of  the 
timber. 

White  birch  for  spool  stock  is  sometimes  driven  for  short 
distances  in  Maine,  although  the  green  timber  will  only  float  for 
a  short  time.  One  method  is  to  fell  the  trees  during  the  summer 
months  and  leave  the  tops  on  them  until  a  large  amount  of 
moisture  has  been  removed.  Again,  the  trees  may  be  felled, 
the  tops  cut  off,  and  the  timber  left  in  the  forest  to  season  for 
from  eight  to  twelve  months  This  method  is  less  satisfactory 
than  the  former  because  the  sapwood  of  the  logs  stains  badly 
during  summer  months,  if  left  for  long  periods. 

The  following  lists  show  the  relative  floating  ability  of  several 
species. 

1  There  is  a  serious  objection  to  this  method  of  handhng  hardwoods  because 
their  value  is  reduced  by  checks  and  incipient  rot.  Hardwood  cut  during 
the  spring  or  summer  must  be  converted  into  lumber  in  a  few  weeks  if  the  best 
results  are  secured. 


FLOATING   AND  RAFTING 


413 


Floating  ability- 

Average  floating 

Floating  ability 

above  the  average 

ability 

below  the  average 

Spruce 

Yellow  pine 

Oak 

White  pine 

Sweet  gum 

Hickory 

Hemlock  (dry) 

Sycamore 

Birch 

Basswood 

Douglas  fir 

Beech 

Poplar 

Chestnut 

Elm 

White  cedar 

Ash 

Redwood  (except  butts) 

Cherry 

Balsam 

Redwood  (butts) 

Larch  (except  butts) 

Larch  (butts) 

Cypress 

Cucumber 

Labor  employed  on  log  drives  is  chiefly  recruited  from  the 
logging  camps  which  have  ceased  operations  by  the  time  the 
streams  are  in  condition  to  float  timber.  Although  the  work  is 
hard,  the  hours  are  long  and  the  men  are  often  exposed  to  many 
hardships  in  the  pursuit  of  their  work,  there  is  a  certain  glamour 
and  fascination  about  it  which  attracts  forest  workers  and  in 
normal  times  loggers  seldom  have  difficulty  in  securing  a  sufficient 
number  of  men. 

The  laborers  in  the  Northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  are 
chiefly  French  Canadians  who  make  admiral)le  river  drivers. 

Log  driving  on  small  streams  is  done  chiefly  from  the  banks, 
except  where  log  jams  occur,  while  on  large  streams  the  work 
must  often  be  done  from  boats  called  bateaux^  or  from  the  logs 
themselves.  The  river  drivers  are  often  subject  to  personal 
danger  in  freeing  lodged  logs  and  in  breaking  up  jams  which 
form  at  narrow  points  in  the  stream,  or  in  places  where  the 
channel  is  obstructed  by  rocks.  A  "key  log"  around  which  a 
jam  is  formed  must  be  freed  before  the  mass  can  be  started, 
and  this  may  be  done  either  with  tools  or  by  a  charge  of  dyna- 
mite. Only  the  most  skillful  men  are  allowed  to  perform  this 
work,  because  great  presence  of  mind  is  required  on  the  part  of 
the  driver  when  the  logs  start  to  move.  Log  drivers,  espe- 
cially on  rough  water,  are  among  the  highest  paid  men  in  the 

1  These  are  strongly  built  boats  with  a  sharp  prow  and  are  fitted  with  two 
pairs  of  oars  and  guided  by  a  single  oar  used  a.s  a  rudder.  They  have  a  capacity 
of  from  six  to  ten  men. 


414 


LOGGING 


woods.  On  small  streams  log  drivers  arc  housed  in  log  camps 
or  in  tents,  while  on  river  drives  the  men  frequently  live  in  a 
house  boat  or  a  tent  called  a  "wanigan,"  which  is  mounted  on 
a  scow  or  raft  and  floated  down  the  stream  as  the  work  proceeds. 
Tents  on  shore  are  also  frequently  used  where  facilities  can  be 
provided  for  moving  them  in  wagons  or  in  boats. 


CONDUCT   OF   THE    DRIVE 


The  Drive  on  Small  Streams.  —  Drives  usually  start  on  the 
upper  courses  of  small  streams  where  the  logs  have  been  "banked" 


Fig.  147.  —  A  Log  Driving  (ivw  at  llie  Landing  on  a  Small  Stream  waiting 
for  a  Head  of  Water.     New  Hampshire. 

in  the  stream  bed,  or  else  scattered  over  the  surface  of  some  lake 
or  pond  near  its  mouth.  The  "banking  ground"  is  often  above  a 
splash  dam  which  furnishes  sufficient  water  to  carry  the  logs 
down  to  the  rear  of  another  dam  or  to  the  main  stream  on  which 
they  are  floated  to  the  mill. 

As  soon  as  the  ice  has  gone  out  sufficiently  to  clear  the  stream,^ 

1  Sometimes  the  ice  does  not  break  up  as  early  on  lakes  and  large  streams, 
when  there  is  only  a  slight  current,  as  it  does  on  swift  water,  and  in  such  cases 
a  channel  may  be  made  through  the  ice  in  order  to  start  the  drive  at  the 
earliest  possible  date. 


FLOATING  AXD  RAFTING  415 

booms  are  placed  in  essential  spots  along  the  channel.  A  head 
of  water  is  accumulated  on  the  banking  ground  and  a  crew  is 
set  to  work  to  "break  down"  the  "landing"  or  "bank;"^ 
that  is,  to  set  the  logs  afloat  in  the  current  so  they  can  pro- 
ceed downstream.  The  sluice  gates  of  the  dams  are  opened 
a  short  time  before  the  logs  are  started  through  and  are  not 
closed  until  several  minutes  after  the  logs  have  ceased  coming, 
otherwise  jams  will  form  at  points  along  the  channel.  The 
work  starts  on  the  pile  farthest  downstream  and  in  the  center 
of  the  channel,  the  logs  from  the  top  of  the  pile  being  thrown 
into  the  water  by  means  of  peavies  and  timber  grapples.  This 
continues  until  the  drivers  have  cleaned  a  channel  wide  enough 
to  enable  them  to  roll  the  remaining  logs  from  the  pile  into  the 
stream.  After  having  cleaned  up  one  section  they  proceed  to 
loosen  the  next  section  above,  and  are  sometimes  obliged  to  ex- 
plode a  small  charge  of  dynamite  to  free  logs  which  are  frozen 
together.  When  logs  are  piled  on  one  side  of  the  stream,  only, 
the  drivers  roll  the  logs  into  the  stream,  beginning  at  the  water's 
edge.  The  loose  logs  float  down  to  the  splash  dam  where  they 
are  converged  toward  the  sluiceway  by  bracket  booms.  Drivers 
stationed  on  the  latter  keep  the  logs  parallel  to  the  current  and 
prevent  them  from  jamming  when  they  pass  through  the  sluice. 
Workmen  armed  with  peavies  and  pike  poles-  are  stationed  at 
strategic  points  along  the  stream  to  prevent  logs  from  ])ecoming 
stranded  on  sand  bars,  and  from  forming  jams  on  rocks  and  in 
narrow  places  in  the  channel. 

Jams  and  stranded  logs  often  can  be  moved  by  the  use  of  a 
dog-warp  which  has  two  strong  hooks  attached  near  the  center 
of  a  rope  stretched  across  the  stream.  A  crew  of  three  or  four 
men  is  stationed  on  either  bank  and  by  catching  one  or  the 
other  of  the  hooks  into  logs  the  men  are  able  to  pull  them  in 
either  direction.  The  use  of  dynamite  is  resorted  to  when  other 
means  fail. 

1  In  the  Appalachian  region,  logs  frequently  are  not  banked  but  are  scattered 
in  the  beds  of  the  streams  where  they  await  a  freshet  to  carry  them  dowTi  the 
stream.  In  such  cases  a  crew  to  break  landing  is  not  required.  Dependence 
is  placed  on  the  current  to  start  the  logs. 

2  This  is  an  ash  or  hickory  pole,  from  12  to  20  feet  long,  with  a  screw  pike 
and  hook  on  one  end.  It  is  ver\'^  serviceable  in  controlling  logs  in  water. 
The  screw  pike  when  forced  into  a  log  has  a  tenacious  grip  which  enables 
the  workman  to  exert  a  strong  pull  without  losing  his  hold  on  the  log. 


416 


LOGGING 


The  drive  on  small  streams  continues  until  all  of  the  logs  have 
left  the  banking  ground.  A  crew  then  starts  to  "pick  rear," 
that  is,  to  collect  all  the  stranded  logs  along  the  stream  and  in 
the  sloughs  and  put  them  into  the  water  so  that  they  will  go  out 
with  the  drive.  This  w^ork  is  generally  done  by  men  who  use 
timber  grapples  and  peavies  for  carrying  and  dragging  the  logs. 


Photograph  by  D.  N.  Rogers. 

Fig.  148.  —  A  Headworks  used  to  Tow  log  Rafts  across  Small  Lakes.     The 
winch  is  operated  by  hand  labor.     Maine. 

Horses  are  employed  when  available  and  the  conditions  are  suitable 
for  their  use. 

When  the  course  of  the  drive  is  across  a  lake  it  is  necessary 
to  confine  the  logs  in  booms  and  tow  them  to  the  outlet. 

A  limber  boom  called  a  "trap"  or  "catch"  boom  is  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  lake  around  the  mouth  of  the  stream  and  the 
logs  are  confined  in  it  until  a  sufficient  number  are  secured, 
when  the  shore  ends  of  the  boom  are  closed  and  the  raft  towed 
across  the  lake.  The  mouth  of  the  stream  is  either  closed  tem- 
porarily or  a  second  boom  placed  in  position  at  once.  Where 
the  distance  is  short  and  the  amount  of  timber  to  be  moved  is 
limited,  it  is  "kedged"  or  "warped"  by  "headworks"  of  the 
type  shown  in  Fig.  148.  This  has  a  capstan,  holding  from  300 
to  400  feet  of  rope,  which  is  mounted  on  a  raft,  and  the  latter 
attached  to  the  forward  part  of  the  boom.  A  heavy  anchor 
fastened  to  the  free  end  of  the  rope  is  carried  forward  in  a  boat 
and  dropped  in  the  path  of  the  raft.     The  capstan  is  then  re- 


FLOATING   AND   RAFTING  417 

volved  either  by  man  or  horse  power.  When  the  raft  reaches 
the  anchor,  the  latter  is  lifted  and  again  carried  forward.  A 
headworks  of  this  character  cannot  be  used  to  advantage  against 
a  head  wind. 

Large  numbers  of  logs  usually  are  handled  by  a  "steam  or 
gasoline  warping  tug"  or  "alligator,"  which  is  a  flat-bottomed, 
steel-shod  scow  on  which  is  mounted  a  pair  of  20  or  30  horse- 
power engines  and  a  large  capstan  or  windlass.  The  boats  are 
propelled  either  by  screws  or  side  wheels  and  are  sometimes  con- 
structed so  that  they  may  be  drawn  overland  on  skids  under  their 
own  power.  Both  indirect  and  direct  towing  methods  are  used.  In 
indirect  towing  a  cable  is  fastened  to  some  convenient  tree  on  shore 
or  an  anchor  is  thrown  out  several  hundred  feet  in  advance  of  the 
raft  and  the  tug  then  run  back  and  attached  to  the  raft  which 
is  advanced  by  winding  up  the  cable  on  the  capstan.  This  method 
requires  about  one-third  less  fuel  than  the  direct  method  and 
can  be  used  when  head  winds  are  blowing.  As  a  rule,  towing  must 
cease  when  there  are  strong  adverse  winds.  Night  work  often 
is  done  because  the  water  usually  is  more  quiet  then. 

Transport  on  small  streams,  as  a  rule,  is  more  expensive  per 
thousand  board  feet  per  mile  than  on  large  ones,  because  of  the 
limited  amount  of  timber  handled,  the  rough  character  of  the 
channel,  and  the  greater  number  of  improvements  per  mile  which 
are  required. 

Individual  drives  on  small  streams  are  in  charge  of  a  foreman 
who  often  is  the  woods  superintendent,  or  the  boss  of  the  log- 
ging camp  at  which  the  timber  was  cut.  One  or  more  sub- 
foremen  aid  him  in  the  conduct  of  the  work. 

The  Drive  on  Large  Streams.^  —  The  driving  problems  on  por- 
tions of  the  route  are  often  similar  to  those  on  small  streams, 
but  in  general  the  difficulties  incident  to  the  transport  of  logs 
are  not  so  great  The  channel  is  wider,  with  longer  stretches  of 
smooth  water,  and  the  greater  volume  of  timber  annually  passing 
downstream  makes  it  practicable  to  install  more  improvements 
than  is  profitable  on  small  streams.  Fewer  men  are  required  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  timber  handled  and  the  distance 
covered,  and  under  normal  circumstances  the  expense  per  thou- 
sand board  feet  for  labor  is  less.  A  large  part  of  the  driving 
work  on  the  average  stream  is  the  prevention  of  jams  at  curves, 
^  See  page  402. 


418  LOGGING 

on  sand  bars,  at  rocky  narrows  and  similar  places,  and  "picking 
rear"  after  the  main  drive  has  passed.  On  many  large  streams 
the  banks  for  a  portion  of  the  distance  may  be  low,  so  that  logs 
can  float  out  of  the  channel  into  sloughs  or  over  land  inun- 
dated during  flood  tune,  and  the  drivers  must  keep  their  booms 
in  good  condition  to  prevent  this  and  to  keep  the  logs 
moving. 

Crews  are  divided  into  squads,  under  sub-foremen,  and  are 
stationed  at  danger  points  along  the  stream.  These  crews  must 
do  much  of  their  work  from  bateaux  or  by  standing  on  logs, 
because  of  the  width  of  the  banks.  In  place  of  "alligators"  and 
"headworks"  powerful  side  wheel,  end  wheel  or  screw  tugs  are 
employed  for  the  transport  of  large  quantities  of  logs  across 
lakes,  or  down  streams  where  it  is  necessary  to  confine  the  logs 
in  booms. 

When  the  head  of  the  drive  reaches  the  first  assorting  gap,  a 
crew  of  men  begins  assorting  and  this  continues  during  the 
summer  and  fall  until  the  logs  are  all  assorted,  the  water  fails, 
or  ice  closes  the  river.  If  no  ill  luck  has  attended  the  drive  the 
last  logs  are  usually  down  by  October  first. 

The  drive  on  the  upper  Connecticut  river  originating  on  the 
Wild  Ammonoosuc  in  New  Hampshire  and  extending  to  Bellows 
Falls  (17  miles  on  the  Ammonoosuc  and  93  miles  on  the  Connect- 
icut river)  begins  about  the  first  of  April  and  lasts  from  twenty- 
three  days  to  six  months.  The  average  tune  is  about  six  weeks. 
One  hundred  men  are  required  on  the  Ammonoosuc  and  about 
sixty  on  the  Connecticut  river. 

On  the  Penobscot  river  in  Maine,  the  average  length  of  drive 
is  approxunately  150  miles  and  the  longest  drive  which  originates 
on  either  the  North  or  South  branch  of  the  West  Branch  is 
about  240  miles.  The  average  quantity  of  material  annually 
driven  down  the  West  Branch  is  130,000,000  board  feet,  about 
three-fourths  of  which  goes  to  Millinocket,  and  the  remainder  to 
Bangor  and  vicinity.  The  drive  begins  about  April  20th  and 
the  last  logs  reach  the  booms  above  Bangor  about  October 
first.  Approximately  2500  men  are  employed  for  the  first  six 
weeks  and  after  the  logs  reach  the  main  stream  the  force  is  cut 
to  about  200  men,  exclusive  of  those  occupied  at  the  assorting 
gaps. 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING 


419 


RAFTING    OX    STREAMS 

Rafting  is  a  common  method  of  handling  logs  on  large  streams 
and  lakes  and  is  practiced  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  The 
motive  power  is  usually  end-wheeled  or  side-wheeled  steamers  on 
small  bodies  of  water,  and  screw-propelled  tugs  on  large  bodies  of 
water.  Rafts  are  now  seldom  drifted  with  the  current.  The 
advantages  of  rafting  are : 

(1)     It    prevents   loose   logs   from   scattering   and    becoming 


Fig.  149.  — A  Mississippi  River  Log  Raft,  Showing  the  Method  of  Control 
by  End-wheeled  Steamers. 


entangled  in  bushes  along  the  banks,  and  from  ])eing  stranded  on 
flats  submerged  at  high  water. 

(2)  It  enables  the  water  transport  of  non-buoyant  species 
which  can  be  held  up  by  fastening  them  to  logs  which  float. 

(3)  Extensive  booms  are  not  required  at  destination  to  catch 
the  logs  as  they  come  down. 

(4)  It  insures  prompt  delivery  on  lakes  and  other  waters 
where  there  is  no  current  to  carry  the  logs  along. 

(5)  The  Federal  Rivers  and  Harbors  Act  of  March  3,  1899, 
declares  "that  it  shall  be  unlawful  to  float  loose  timber  or  logs 
in  streams  actually  navigated  by  steamboats  in  such  manner  as 
to  obstruct,  impede,  or  endanger  navigation." 


420  *  LOGGING 

There  are  a  variety  of  forms  in  which  rafts  are  built,  depending 
upon  the  character  of  the  water  on  which  they  are  to  be  towed, 
the  kind  of  thnber  rafted  and  on  the  Federal  regulations^  gov- 
erning rafting. 

Bag  or  Sack  Booms.  —  These  are  used  on  the  Great  Lakes  and 
on  large  rivers"  They  have  a  single  or  double  row  of  boom 
sticks  surrounding  the  impounded  logs.  For  lake  work  short 
boom  sticks  of  large  size  are  preferable  because  loose  logs  are 
less  apt  to  slip  under  them  than  they  are  under  the  long  ones. 


Fig.  150.  —  Method  of  fastening  Rafting  Poles  to  Logs  by  means 
of  Iron 


On  the  Great  Lakes  double  booms  with  connecting  chains  made 
of  Ij-inch  iron  are  considered  superior  to  single  booms,  especially 
for  rough  water.  A  type  of  boom  which  is  serviceable  for  im- 
pounding logs  for  towing  in  bad  weather  is  made  from  white 
pine  logs  24  inches  or  more  in  diameter  and  from  16  to  24  feet 
in  length.  The  boom  sticks  are  bored  18  inches  from  the  ends 
for  1|-  or  Ij-  inch  chains  and  are  blocked  across  the  top 
and  bottom,  in  front  of  the  chain  holes,  with  hardwood  strips 
to  prevent  the  chains  from  cutting  into  the  boom  sticks.  The 
chains  should  not  be  longer  than  is  necessary  to  permit  the  ends 
of  the  boom  sticks  being  coupled  24  inches  apart.  Two  sets 
of  boom  sticks  are  placed  around  each  raft  so  that  it  will  not  go 
to  pieces  if  one  set  of  chains  is  broken.  During  the  period  when 
the  exportation  of  logs  was  permitted  by  the  Provincial  Govern- 
ments of  Canada,  large  quantities  of  white  pine  were  rafted  to  this 
country  and  manufactured  at  points  along  the  Great  Lakes.  The 
season  for  towing  was  from  June  1  to  October  15.  The  rafts 
contained  from  2,000,000  to  6,000,000  board  feet  each,  and  were 
handled  by  powerful  tugs.     The  transport  of  logs  from  Canada 

^  The  Federal  government  specifies  the  form,  size  and  character  of  rafts  that 
may  traverse  certain  navigable  waters  and  harbors. 


FLOATING  AND   RAFTING  421 

to  the  United  States  practically  ceased  in  1898  when  an  em- 
bargo was  placed  on  the  export  of  logs  from  Crown  lands. 

Rafts  Fastened  with  Poles.  —  The  common  form  of  raft  on  the 
Ohio  River  and  on  some  southern  streams  is  one  in  which  the 
logs  are  made  up  into  raft  sections.  The  logs  in  each  section 
are  attached  to  each  other  by  poles  placed  across  the  logs  and 
fastened  to  them  by  means  of  rafting  dogs.  The  sections  are 
fastened  together  by  cables. 

On  the  Ohio  River  poplar  and  other  logs  are  rafted  in  lengths 
of  from  20  to  60  feet.  The  longer  logs  are  preferred  because 
of  the  greater  ease  in  rafting  and  also  because  the  laws  of  ad- 
joining states  allow  a  fee  of  25 
cents  per  stick  without  regard  to 
length,  to  all  parties  who  catch  and 
hold  logs  for  rafting.  On  the 
upper  reaches  of  the  Big  Sandy 
River  floating  logs  are  caught  and 

about  sixty  sticks  are  made  into  a  ,     , 

e,       u'  u    •     J-  •   Ui    J.      J.      1        Fig.  151.  —  Method  of  Attach- 

raft  which  is  from  eight  to  twelve      .      ^  ,,■      ti  i     ^    t        u 
1  -J  AC  OCA  X      ,nn  r     .        ing  Rafting  Poles  to  Logs,  by 

logs  Wide  and  from  250  to  400  feet       means  of  Wooden  Pins, 
long.     The  logs  are  bound  together 

with  small  poles  20  feet  long  which  are  placed  at  intervals  of 
from  10  to  12  feet.  Rafts  are  equipped  with  long  sweeps  at 
each  end  to  assist  in  guiding  them,  and  each  one  is  floated 
down  to  the  mouth  of  the  stream  in  charge  of  two  men.  The 
owner  makes  from  twelve  to  sixteen  rafts,  containing  from 
700  to  900  sticks,  into  a  fleet  and  takes  it  down-stream  to  the 
mills  under  the  control  of  a  tug.  An  occasional  fleet  contain- 
ing 2000  logs  is  handled  which  is  regarded  as  the  maximum 
size  practicable. 

A  modification  of  this  form  of  raft  is  occasionally  used  for 
handling  yellow  pine  in  the  South.  The  rafts  are  made  up  in  sec- 
tions one  log  long  held  together  by  poles  which  are  attached  to 
the  logs  by  wooden  plugs  driven  into  holes  bored  through  the 
poles  and  into  the  timbers.  Several  sections  are  then  made 
into  a  raft  and  floated  downstream  to  the  mill  under  the  guid- 
ance of  raftmen  who  steer  with  long  sweeps  or  oars. 

On  some  of  the  streams  in  the  Northeast  assorted  logs  are  made 
into  rafts  and  towed  to  the  mills.  The  St.  John's  River  Log 
Driving  Company  of  Fredericton,  New  Brunswick,  makes  up  its 


422 


LOGGING 


rafts  in  the  following  way.  The  logs  after  being  assorted  are 
run  into  pockets  according  to  ownership.  About  thirty  logs 
are  fastened  together  at  one  end  with  a  "rattling  line"  which  is 
a  cable  on  which  are  strung  the  necessary  number  of  ring  dogs. 
This  "joint,"  as  it  is  called,  is  then  floated  out  of  the  pocket  and 
down  the  "rattling  run"  to  the  "bottom  makers"  who  place 
two  boom  poles  across  the  raft,  and  bore  holes  through  the  boom 


Photograph  hij  li.  B.  Milhr. 

Fig.  152.  —  Loading  the  Bottom  of  a  Raft  with  Logs  by  means  of  a  Parbuckle. 
A  bracket  boom  is  shown  on  the  left.     New  Brunswick. 


poles  and  logs  which  are  then  fastened  together  with  hardwood 
pins.  The  rattling  lines  are  then  removed  and  the  bottom  passes 
down  to  a  loading  machine  where  a  top  load  of  logs  is  placed  upon 
it.  The  joints  are  then  scaled  and  floated  downstream  where 
from  five  to  seven  of  them  are  fastened  together  by  short  pieces 
of  poles,  called  brackets,  and  hardwood  pins  and  then  towed  to 
the  mill  by  tugs. 

For  many  years  rafts  on  the  Mississippi  and  some  other  rivers 
in  the  Lake  States  were  made  into  "brails"  or  sections.  The 
logs  were  fastened  together  with  poles  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
Ohio  River  method,  except  that  rope  and  rafting  pins  were  used 
instead  of  chain  dogs.  Two-inch  holes  were  bored  in  the  log  on 
either  side  of  the  pole  and  the  ends  of  a  short  section  of  rope 
placed  in  these  holes  and  firmly  held  by  hardwood  rafting  pins 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING 


423 


driven  in  behind  them.  This  was  an  expensive  method  because 
of  the  large  amount  of  rope  required,  and  it  has  now  been  super- 
seded by  an  improved  method  pat- 
ented by  an  employee  of  one  of  the 
boom  companies. 

The  brails  as  now  made  have  a 
set  of  boom  sticks  forming  a  rec- 
tangular pocket  which  is  filled  with 
loose  logs.  The  boom  sticks  are  Fig 
held  together  by  a  3-link  chain  10 
inches  long  (Fig.  154)  through  the 
outer  links  of  which  the  pin  (Fig. 
1546)  is  passed  and  then  driven  into 
2-inch  holes  bored  in  each  boom 
made  of  oak  and  turned  to  a 


153.  — Method  of  fasten- 
ing Rafting  Poles  to  Logs  by 
means  of  Wooden  Rafting 
Pins.  A  method  formerly 
used  on  the  Mississippi  River. 

stick.      These    pins    are 
minimum  diameter  of  2  inches 


Fig.  154.  —  Details  of  a  Mississippi  River  Log  Raft.  a.  The  method  of 
fastening  the  boom  sticks  together,  and  bracing  them  with  cables,  b.  A 
rafting  pin  such  as  in  inserted  in  the  outer  links  of  the  chain  d.  c.  The 
free  end  of  the  cable  which  is  used  to  strengthen  the  raft.  d.  3-Iink  chain 
through  the  outer  links  of  which  the  rafting  pins  are  driven. 


and  a  length  of  11  inches.  The  top  end  has  a  swell  2\  inches 
in  diameter,  with  a  slightly  smaller  swell  in  .the  center.  The 
head  is  large  enough  to  prevent  the  chain  link  from  slipping 
over  it  and  the  swell  in  the  center  binds  on  the  wood  and  holds 
the  plug  fast.     A  cable  is  passed  through  the  center  links  around 


424 


LOGGING 


the  entire  brail  and  further  strengthens  it.  The  brail  is  braced 
crosswise  with  cables  as  shown  in  Fig.  154a.  Several  links  of 
chain  are  fastened  to  the  outside  boom  sticks  by  means  of  a  rafting 
pin.  On  the  opposite  side  one  end  of  a  special  cable,  Fig.  154c, 
is  fastened  to  the  boom  stick  by  a  pin  and  the  other  end  carried 
over  to  the  chain,  which  is  passed  through  a  flattened  link  and 
caught.     This  gives  rigidity  to  the  raft. 

The  chains  and  cables  can  be  used  repeatedly  and  hence  are 
cheaper  than  rope,  which  can  be  used  but  once.     Rafts  of  this 


«'^i  *v. ', 


■"^"^f^^ 


Fig.  155.  —  A  Cypress  Raft  in  a  Louisiana  Bayou.     The  floating  vegetation 
on  the  extreme  right  is  the  water-hyacinth. 

character  are  made  in  sections,  some  of  them  300  by  750  feet 
in  size,  and  containing  from  850,000  to  4,000,000  board  feet  of 
timber.  They  are  controlled  by  two  end-wheeled  boats,  one 
at  the  rear  which  serves  to  regulate  the  speed,  and  one  at  the 
front  end  which  is  floated  side  on  and  which  guides  the  raft 
by  pulling  it  backward  or  forward  across  the  stream. 

Cypress  Rafts.  —  Cypress  logs,  which  are  skidded  with  pull- 
boats,  are  rafted  down  the  canals  and  bayous.  A  common 
form  of  raft  has  cigar-shaped  sections  from  150  to  200  feet  long, 
each  containing  from  twenty  to  thirty  logs  which  are  floated 
loose  within  the  boom  sticks.  Sinkers  are  placed  between 
floating  logs  and  fastened  to  them  by  poles  and  chain  dogs. 
Old  skidding  cable  is  often  used  to  bind  the  boom  sticks  to- 
gether.    A  2-inch  hole  is  bored  in  the  log,  and  the  end  of  the 


FLOATING  AND   RAFTING  425 

cable  inserted  and  made  fast  by  a  wooden  plug  driven  in  be- 
hind it.  The  sections  are  fastened  together  by  rope,  and  made 
into  a  long  raft  which  is  towed  to  the  mill  by  small  tugs.  Navi- 
gation  is  seriously  hampered   and   sometimes   stopped   by  the 


Fig.  156.  —  Raft  Bundles  at  the  Mill  Pond.     North  Carolina. 

congestion  of  the  watercourses  by  the  water  hyacinth  and  mills 
have  been  forced  to  shut  down  on  account  of  the  lack  of  logs, 
due  to  the  closing  of  the  waterways  by  this  plant. 

Raft  Bundles.  —  In  the  Coastal  Plain  region  logs  are  sometimes 
made  into  bundles  each  containing  two  car  loads  of  logs,  from  20 


426  LOGGING 

to  30  pieces,  which  are  bound  together  firmly  with  chains.  The 
maximum  tow  for  the  larger  tugs  used  on  this  work  is  from  thirty 
to  forty  bundles.  From  30  to  40  per  cent  of  the  tunber  cannot 
be  floated  and  the  object  of  this  method  of  transportation  is  to 
make  the  buoyant  carry  the  non-buoyant  logs.  Bundles  frequently 
have  to  be  made  over  because  of  an  excess  of  heavy  logs  which 
causes  them  to  sink.  The  bundles  are  constructed  at  a  log  dump 
built  over  some  tidal  stream.  A  cradle  of  two  heavy  cables  is 
used  to  bundle  the  logs.  One  end  of  the  cable  is  fastened  to  the 
railroad  trestle,  and  then  passed  down  under  the  water  and  up  to 
a  winch  located  in  the  second  story  of  the  log  dump.  The  cables 
thus  make  a  large  loop  into  which  the  logs  are  unloaded.  Two 
binding  chains  are  sunk  into  the  water  alongside  each  cable,  one 
end  being  temporarily  attached  to  the  unloading  dock  and  the 
other  end  to  a  small  rope  which  is  placed  outside  of  the  cradle. 
When  the  logs  have  been  placed  in  the  latter,  the  bundle  is  made 
compact  by  tightening  up  the  cradle  cables,  and  the  binding 
chains  are  then  brought  around  the  bundle,  tied  and  made  fast 
by  heavy  iron  dogs. 

Pacific  Coast  Rafting.  —  Logs  in  the  Pacific  Coast  region  are 
often  rafted  down  the  large  streams,  or  towed  along  Puget  Sound 
to  the  mills.  Two  forms  of  rafts  are  employed  for  this  work. 
When  logs  are  to  be  floated  downstream  without  the  aid  of  a 
tug,  they  are  made  up  into  "round"  booms  which  are  a  group 
of  loose  logs  surrounded  by  several  boom  sticks.  The  raft  may 
be  allowed  to  drift  with  the  current  or  controlled  by  tugs,  and  may 
or  may  not  be  in  charge  of  a  raftsman,  depending  on  the  character 
of  the  stream,  and  the  tides. 

Logs  that  are  to  be  towed  to  destination  are  rafted  at  a  "harbor 
boom,"  which  has  a  large  storage  pocket  and  a  rafting  pocket. 
The  logs  are  brought  to  the  harbor  boom  by  rail  and  dumped 
into  the  storage  pockets  which  are  areas  inclosed  by  boom  sticks 
held  in  place  by  piling.  The  rafting  pockets  are  narrow  lanes 
about  75  feet  wide  and  from  800  to  1000  feet  long  inclosed  by 
boom  sticks,  held  in  place  by  piling  placed  at  approxunately 
70-foot  intervals.  The  logs  may  or  may  not  be  assorted  for  quality 
and  species.  Rafting  on  tide  water  can  be  carried  on  only  dur- 
ing a  favorable  tide. 

The  rafters  first  string  boom  sticks  across  the  far  end  and  on 
both  sides  of  thr  ]wcket.     Logs  of  approximately  equal  lengths 


FLOATING   .VXD   RAFTING  427 

are  then  poled  down  the  run  and  stowed  parallel  to  each  other 
in  the  first  section  of  boom  sticks.  Each  row  is  known  as  a 
"tier,"  and  two  tiers  usually  constitute  a  section  about  75  feet 
square.  As  soon  as  two  tiers  have  been  stowed,  boom  sticks 
called  "swifters"  are  placed  across  the  end  of  the  section  at  right 
angles  to  the  tiers,  and  attached  to  those  on  the  outer  side»of 
the  raft  unit.  New  sections  are  then  made  up  in  the  same  manner, 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  constituting  the  usual  tow.  Two  rafters 
can  make  up  about  six  sections  or  from  260,000  to  300,000  board 
feet  during  a  tide. 

When  the  rafting  is  done  in  rivers  where  there  is  a  strong 
current  a  slightly  different  procedure  is  followed.  The  rafters 
start  at  the  near  end  of  the  rafting  pocket  and  hang  out  three  or 
four  sections  of  boom  sticks.  The  logs  are  then  run  into  the  rafting 
pocket  and  guided  with  a  pike  pole  to  their  place  in  the  "tier." 
Difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  in  turning  logs  end  on  in  a 
swift  current,  if  they  get  crosswise  of  the  rafting  pocket.  In  case 
piling  is  not  used  to  confine  the  rafts,  each  section  is  kept  from 
spreading  until  completed  by  the  use  of  a  rope  or  cable  also 
called  a  "swifter"  which  is  fastened  to  the  outside  boom  sticks. 
When  the  sections  are  completed  the  "swifters"  are  removed. 


The  first  attempt  at  rafting  logs  for  transport  on  the  high  seas 
was  made  about  1884  when  a  large  raft  was  constructed  in 
Nova  Scotia,  launched  from  shore  and  started  toward  New  York 
in  charge  of  a  tug.  This  raft  was  lost  because  the  tug  left  it 
to  go  into  port  for  coal  and  on  return  to  the  high  seas  was  unable 
to  again  locate  it.  After  a  long  period  it  washed  ashore  on  the 
Norwegian  Coast.  The  same  builder  later  went  to  Coos  Bay, 
Oregon,  where  he  built  two  rafts  for  transport  to  San  Francisco, 
one  of  which  reached  its  destination  safely.  In  the  construction 
of  the  latter  rafts  the  use  of  cradles  or  floating  frames  was  first 
adopted. 

In  1894,  raft  building  began  on  the  Columbia  river,  where  it 
has  reached  its  highest  development.  Several  rafts  now  leave 
annually  for  San  Diego,  California,  with  no  losses  during  recent 
years.  The  rafts  known  as  the  Benson  type,  arc^  })uilt  cigar- 
shaped  and  from  700  to  1000  feet  long,  with  a  depth  at  the  center 


428  LOGGING 

of  from  30  to  35  feet  and  a  breadth  of  from  50  to  60  feet.  The 
taper  extends  100  feet  from  each  end. 

Ocean-going  rafts  are  built  in  a  cradle  or  frame  which  is  moored 
to  piling  in  deep  water.  One  side  of  the  cradle  is  detachable 
and  when  the  raft  is  completed  it  is  launched  by  dropping  this 
side  and  allowing  the  raft  to  slide  side  wise  into  the  water.  A 
700-foot  cradle  requires  200,000  board  feet  of  timber  in  its  construc- 
tion and  with  minor  repairs  it  can  be  used  for  an  indefinite  period 
provided  the  water  is  sufficiently  fresh  to  prevent  toredo  attacks. 
A  derrick  hoisting  engine,  mounted  on  a  scow,  is  necessary  for 
stowing  logs  in  the  cradle.  A  crew  of  five  or  six  raftsmen  is 
required. 

The  logs  are  floated  out  to  the  cradle  and,  beginning  at  either 
end  of  the  latter,  the  longest  and  most  pliable  sticks  are  used 
for  the  outer  layers.  These  sticks  should  be  at  least  60  feet 
long  and  are  placed  with  their  butts  toward  the  center  of  the 
raft.  This  gives  a  taper  to  the  body  of  the  raft  and  as  the  logs 
gradually  work  outward  the  binding  chains  are  drawn  tighter. 
The  interior  may  be  filled  with  any  length  logs,  provided  the 
joints  are  broken. 

After  the  raft  has  been  built  up  to  a  height  of  20  feet,  a  21- 
inch  tow  chain  is  laid  from  stem  to  stern  with  50  feet  projecting 
on  either  end  to  which  the  towing  cable  is  attached.  "Herring 
bone"  chains,  made  from  If-inch  iron,  are  then  attached  to 
the  main  tow  chain  on  the  tapering  ends  of  the  raft,  then  run 
diagonally  across  the  raft  toward  either  end,  and  fastened  to  the 
binder  chains.  This  prevents  the  latter  from  slipping  on  the 
conical  portion  of  the  raft,  distributes  the  pull  of  the  tow  chain 
over  a  large  portion  of  the  stern,  and  also  gives  a  limited  amount 
of  slack  in  the  center  which  is  essential  to  permit  the  raft  to  bend 
slightly  with  the  action  of  the  waves. 

When  the  raft  is  completed,  binder  chains  made  from  If-inch 
iron  are  placed  entirely  around  it  at  12-foot  intervals  and  are 
tightened  V)y  the  hoisting  engine.  A  700-foot  raft  containing 
from  4,000,000  to  5,000,000  board  feet  requires  about  115  tons  of 
chain,  1     A  30-foot  raft  draws  from  20  to  22  feet  of  water. 

^  A  brief  description  of  a  similar  ocean-going  raft  constructed  at  Bonne 
Bay,  Newfoundland,  in  1917  may  be  found  in  American  Lumberman,  January 
25,  1919,  p.  35.  This  raft  was  built  on  a  plank  foundation  on  a  sloping  beach 
and  at  high  tide  was  i)iished  out  into  deeper  water  as  the  work  progressed. 


FLOATINC   AND   RAFTING  429 

The  safe  towing  periods  arc  from  June  15  to  September  15 
and,  under  favorable  conditions,  the  trip  can  be  made  in  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  days. 

A  different  type  of  ocean-going  raft  was  developed  some  years 
ago  in  British  Columbia  which  does  not  require  the  use  of  a  cradle 
such  as  is  used  in  building  the  Benson  rafts. ^  They  are  preferred 
for  use  where  rafts  are  built  in  salt  water  because  marine  borers 


Fig.  157.  —  General  Form  of  the  Davis  Patent  Log  Raft. 

attack  cradle  timbers  and  necessitate  frequent  and  costly  repairs. 

A  bottom  tier  of  logs  is  first  formed  by  enclosing  an  area  70 
feet  wide  and  150  feet  long  with  boom  sticks  which  are  bound 
together  with  cables.  A  swifter  is  also  placed  crosswise  of  the 
side  boom  sticks  at  each  end  in  order  to  keep  the  raft  rectangular 
in  shape.  A  bottom  tier  of  logs  is  then  placed  in  position  between 
the  swifters  and  bound  together  with  1^-inch  cables  or  with 
chains. 

Several  tiers  of  logs  are  then  placed  on  the  floor  and  a  chain 
passed  around  them  and  fastened  to  the  outside  boom  sticks.  A 
top  load  is  then  placed  on  the  raft  and  bound  together  with  cables 
1  See  Fig.  157 


430  LOGGING 

or  chains.  Cables  are  then  passed  over  the  top  of  the  raft  and 
the  cable  ends  made  fast  to  the  side  boom  sticks.  Logs  from  32 
to  70  feet  are  most  suitable  for  this  form  of  raft.  Joints  should 
be  broken  in  stowing  the  logs  in  order  to  make  the  raft  rigid.  A 
raft  70  by  150  feet  in  size  will  carry  about  750,000  board  feet 
of  timber, 

LOG   BARGES 

Barges  are  used  for  the  transportation  of  hardwood  logs  on 
some  portions  of  the  lower  Mississippi  river,  the  logs  being 
brought  to  the  banks  of  the  stream  and  loaded  by  power  derricks, 
mounted  on  barges  or  by  derricks  on  the  barge  itself.  One  of  the 
better  types  of  barge  suitable  for  log  transportation  is  about 
100  feet  long  with  an  open  hatch  on  each  end  about  36  feet 
in  length.  Two  steam  derricks  are  mounted  on  the  center 
of  the  barge,  a  boom  projecting  over  each  hold.  Such  a  barge, 
carrying  from  90,000  to  100,000  board  feet  of  logs  can  be  loaded 
in  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  working  hours  by  a  crew  of  five 
men,  two  working  in  the  hold,  one  operating  a  derrick,  and  two 
on  shore.  Barge  transportation  is  desirable  on  streams  where 
suitable  rafting  facilities  are  not  available,  when  logs  are  to  be 
moved  upstream,  and  with  species  that  are  too  heavy  to  float.  Al- 
though introduced  in  the  Lake  States,  this  method  never  gained 
favor  in  the  transport  of  logs  from  Canada  to  the  United  States,  be- 
cause of  the  limited  capacity  of  the  boats,  and  the  ease  and  safety 
with  which  logs  could  be  rafted. 

SUNKEN    LOGS 

Many  streams,  on  which  driving  has  been  carried  on  for  years, 
have  accumulated  large  numbers  of  small,  heavy  butted  and 
sappy  logs  in  their  channels.  In  the  Lake  States  streams  which 
contain  large  quantities  of  sunken  timber,  the  "deadheads" 
average  about  twenty  pieces  per  thousand  board  feet. 

Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  salvage  sunken  timber,  es- 
pecially in  this  region,  and  although  log-raising  companies  have 
been  formed  and  have  operated  to  a  limited  extent,  the  industry 
has  never  assumed  large  proportions.  The  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  successful  operation  have  been  numerous.  According 
to  a  decision^  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Michigan  the  title  to 
1  See  page  411. 


FLOATING  AND  RAFTING  431 

sunken  logs  remains  with  the  original  owners.  Where  several 
hundred  marks  and  brands  have  been  used  on  a  stream,  it  is 
ahnost  hopeless  for  a  company  to  attempt  to  secure  title  to  all 
the  logs  raised  because  many  of  the  owners  of  given  brands 
and  marks  are  deceased  or  have  left  the  region.  In  addition 
the  log  raiser  must  reckon  with  riparian  owners  which  is  a  further 
drawback  to  the  work.^ 

There  have  been  numerous  methods  used  in  raising  logs, 
some  of  which  have  been  patented.  On  shallow  streams  and 
on  lakes  the  practice  once  existed  of  raising  the  logs  by  various 
means,  towing  them  to  the  bank  where  they  were  stored  until 
they  dried  out,  and  then  rolling  them  in  the  water  to  float  to 
the  mill.  This  method  was  not  entirely  successful  because  many 
logs  again  sank,  even  though  they  had  been  stored  on  the  bank 
for  a  period  of  two  years. 

When  the  distance  from  the  point  of  operation  is  short,  floats 
made  of  logs  are  built  and  a  windlass  mounted  on  them.  The 
float  is  poled  over  the  sunken  logs  and  the  latter  raised  by  means 
of  tongs  which  are  attached  to  a  manila  rope  wound  on  the  wind- 
lass. The  raised  logs  are  dogged  to  the  float  and  poled  or  towed 
to  the  mill  or  some  convenient  storage  point. 

A  hoisting  engine  with  suitable  booms  and  grapples,  mounted 
on  a  flat  boat,  has  also  been  used.  The  logs  were  either  rafted 
and  kept  afloat  by  steel  tubular  buoys  32  feet  long  by  18  inches 
in  diameter  which  were  scattered  throughout  the  raft,  or  else 
loaded  on  scows  and  towed  to  the  mill  or  to  some  convenient 
storage  point.     Occasionally  deadheads  are  attached  to  rafts  of 

1  A  law  became  effective  in  Wisconsin  on  June  1,  1921,  which  provides 
that  deadheads,  and  sunken,  or  stranded  logs  outside  of  the  limits  of  existing 
booms,  which  have  remained  for  more  than  six  years  in  navigaVjle  waters 
where  more  than  one  corporation  or  individual  has  floated  logs,  and  in  which 
no  booming  company  has  actually  operated,  are  declared  "abandoned" 
and  may  be  salvaged  by  anyone.  Those  who  salvage  logs  must  pubhsh 
notice  of  their  intention  previous  to  beginning  work.  On  or  before  the  seventh 
day  of  each  month  during  the  progress  of  salvaging,  records  of  the  number  of 
logs  salvaged,  and  marks  on  the  logs  must  be  filed  with  the  lumber  inspector. 
Those  claiming  ownership  in  the  salvaged  logs,  after  proper  identification, 
and  within  thirty  days,  may  recover  logs,  by  paying  a  reasonable  compensation 
to  the  salvager.  All  logs  on  which  no  claims  are  filed  become  the  property 
of  the  operator.  This  law  does  not  apply  to  certain  streams  forming  the 
boundary  line  between  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  nor  to  certain  other  streams 
or  portions  of  streams  specified  in  the  law. 


432  LOGGING 

floating    timber    and    thus    buoyed    up    until    they    reach    the 
mill. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   TO    CHAPTER   XXH 

A  Digest  of  the  Laws  Relating  to  Logging  which  have  been  Enacted  in  the 
Different  States.  Polk's  Lumber  Directory,  1904-05.  R.  L.  Polk  and 
Co.,  Chicago,  pp.  96-150E. 

Anonymous:  Davis  Ocean-going  Log  Raft.  West  Coast  Lumberman, 
Dec.  15,  1917,  pp.  28  and  29. 

Barrows,  H.  K.  and  Babb,  C.  C:  Log  Driving  and  Lumbering  Water 
Resources  of  the  Penobscot  River,  Maine.  Water  Supply  Paper  279,  U. 
S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  1912,  pp.  211-220. 

Bridges,  J.  B.:  Definition  of  the  Law  Governing  the  Use  of  Driving 
Streams.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  64F  and  64G. 

Bridges,  J.  B.:  Laws  Governing  the  Use  of  Streams  for  Logging  Pur- 
poses (Pacific  Coast).     The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  49-51. 

Fastabend,  John  A.:  Ocean  Log  Rafting.  The  Timberman,  August, 
1909,  pp.  38-39. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
FLUMES  AND  LOG  SLUICES 

Log  and  lumber  flumes,  and  log  sluices  are  built  to  transport 
lumber,  crossties,  shingle  bolts,  acid  wood,  cordwood,  pulp- 
wood,  mine  timbers  and  saw  logs  from  the  forest  to  mills,  rail- 
roads or  driveable  streams,  and  to  carry  products  from  the 
mill  to  market,  or  to  rail  transport.  They  are  used  to  some 
extent  in  nearly  every  forest  region,  but  are  especially  serviceable 
where  stream  transportation  is  not  available  and  when  the 
topography  is  so  rough  that  railroad  construction  is  costly. 

They  have  several  advantages  over  logging  railroads  in  a 
rough  region:  (1)  they  can  be  carried  over  inequalities  in  the 
ground,  or  across  gulches  on  fairly  light  trestles;  (2)  they  can 
be  operated  on  steeper  grades;  (3)  they  occupy  less  space  than 
a  railroad  and  hence  require  smaller  cuts  and  tunnels  and  can 
often  be  located  in  narrow  canyons  where  there  is  not  sufficient 
space  for  a  railroad. 

The  disadvantages  are:  (1)  the  transport  of  crooked  and 
long  logs  is  difficult  and  costly;  (2)  the  light  construction  ren- 
ders them  more  subject  than  railroads  to  damage  by  windstorms, 
fires,  floods,  falling  timber  and  other  natural  agencies,  although 
they  can  be  repaired  more  cheaply;  (3)  they  usually  off"er  no 
means  of  transporting  supplies  from  the  railroad  to  the  saw  mill 
or  forest;  however,  in  some  instances  the  edges  of  the  flume  box 
are  used  as  a  track  over  which  railroad  speeders  are  run,  thus 
affording  comnumication  between  the  two  ends  of  the  flume; 
(4)  the  transport  of  lumber  roughens  the  surface  of  planed  ma- 
terial and  also  batters  the  ends  of  the  boards  which  have  to  be 
trimmed  after  leaving  the  water  so  that  planing  mill  work  must 
be  done  at  some  point  below  the  lower  terminal  of  the  flume. 

TYPE    OF   BOX 

There  are  two  types  of  flume  and  sluice  boxes.     One  is  V- 
shaped  and  may  have  a  "  backbone  "^  which  makes  a  box  6  or 
1  A  triangular  strip  fastened  in  the  vertex  of  the  flume  box. 
433 


434  LOGGING 

8  inches  wide  at  the  base,  with  outwardly  sloping  sides.  The 
other  is  known  as  the  box  flume. 

The  choice  of  type  and  size  of  box  depends  on  the  character 
and  size  of  material  to  be  transported,  the  amount  of  water 
available,  and  the  ultunate  use  of  the  water  itself.  In  some 
instances  when  water  from  flumes  is  used  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses, the  box  is  of  larger  size  than  is  required  for  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  transporting  forest  products. 

Lumber  and  log  flumes  rest  on  skids  on  the  ground  or  are 
elevated  on  trestles.  They  sometimes  pass  through  tunnels  or 
cuts  although  these  are  avoided  whenever  possible  because  of 
the  increased  cost  of  construction. 

V-box.  —  This  type  of  box  is  commonly  used  for  lumber, 
crossties,  small  dimension  stock,  small  round  mine  timbers, 
pulpwood,^  and,  when  built  of  large  size,  for  saw  logs.-  With 
a  backbone  it  requires  less  water  than  any  other  type. 

A  box  with  a  vertex  angle  of  90  degrees  is  the  best  because 
it  has  a  slightly  less  length  of  side  than  greater  or  lesser  angles, 
it  allows  the  movement  of  logs  with  greater  crook,  it  gives  more 
clearance  to  the  log  than  a  box  with  a  greater  angle,  and  is  more 
economical  to  construct  because  the  joints  at  the  apex  can  be 
fitted  more  easily. 

An  objection  sometimes  raised  to  the  use  of  a  V-box  for  the 
transport  of  shingle  bolts  and  other  short  material  is  that  when 
the  individual  pieces  are  uneven  in  size  and  weight  they  do  not 
all  travel  at  the  same  speed,  therefore,  they  are  apt  to  double  on 
low  grades  and  on  curves. 

^  A  pulpwood  flume  operated  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains  of  Northern  New 
York  was  36  inches  across  the  top  and  36  inches  deep.  It  was  supported  on  a 
trestle  which  in  places  was  100  feet  high.  The  flume  was  2|  miles  long,  had  a 
capacity  of  sixty  cords  of  18-inch  pulpwood  per  hour,  and  the  bolts  traversed 
the  distance  in  7^  minutes,  dropping  into  a  stream  down  which  they  were 
dri\en  to  a  pulp  mill. 

2  A  5-mile  log  flume  was  constructed  in  Idaho  with  an  average  grade  of  11 
per  cent,  a  maximum  grade  of  15  per  cent,  and  a  maximum  curvature  of  20 
degrees.  The  box  was  supported  on  trestles  16  feet  apart  with  4-  by  8-inch 
sills,  posts,  and  caps  and  2-  by  6-inch  braces;  5-  by  10-inch  stringers  with 
2-  by  6-inch  lateral  braces  and  round  pole  supports  in  the  center  of  each  bent; 
4-  by  6-inch  bracket  sills  spaced  from  2  to  4  feet  apart  depending  on  the 
weight  carried  and  the  strength  required  at  loading  points,  and  3-  by  6-inch 
braces.  The  box  was  made  from  2-inch  rough  lumber  with  the  cracks  bat- 
tened with  l\-  by  1-inch  strips.  See  The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp. 
42-44. 


FLUMES  AiND  LOG  SLUICES 


435 


436  LOGGING 

The  box  of  a  V-flume  for  lumber  and  crossties  has  sides  ranging 
from  15  to  18  inches  high  and  is  from  30  to  36  inches  wide  at 
the  top  (Fig.  158 A  and  B),  while  those  for  floating  large  logs 
may  have  a  top  width  of  60  or  more  inches.  The  backbone  when 
added  is  made  from  a  6-  by  6-inch  or  8-  by  8-inch  timber  sawed 
diagonally.  The  side  boards  of  the  box  are  1  inch  in  thickness 
for  sides  up  to  30  inches  in  height,  1|  inches  if  from  30  to  36 
inches  high,  and  2  inches  if  from  36  to  48  inches  high.  The 
cracks  are  battened  with  1-  by  4-inch  or  1-  by  6-inch  strips. 
The  boards  range  in  width  from  8  to  14  inches,  but  are  usually 
from  12  to  14  inches.     The  lengths  are  commonly  16  and  24  feet. 

Box  Flumes.  —  These  are  used  for  lumber  and  dimension 
stock  (Fig.  158C),  shingle  bolts,  pulpwood,  and  logs.^  They  are 
more  expensive  to  construct  than  a  V-flume  because  the  greater 
weight  of  water  carried  necessitates  a  heavier  trestle  and  the  box 
is  more  difficult  to  fashion.  Where  the  water  supply  is  abundant, 
boxes  of  this  character  are  sometimes  used  for  lumber  transport. 
A  box  flume^  in  California  transports  300,000  board  feet  daily. 
From  five  to  six  boards  are  clamped  together  into  a  unit  which 
is  floated  singly  on  the  steeper  grades  toward  the  head  of  the 
flume.^  On  the  low  grades  near  the  lower  terminus  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  units  are  "dogged"  together  with  manila  rope 
and  floated  to  destination. 

For  shingle  bolts,  acid  wood,  and  cord  wood  a  box  with  a 
10-inch  bottom,  20-inch  sides,  and  24  inches  across  the  top  is 
sometimes  used.  In  Northern  New  York  a  flume  of  this  size 
handled  60  cords  of  spruce  pulpwood  per  hour.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, they  are  larger  with  a  base  of  approximately  20  inches, 
sides  from  16  to  20  inches  high,  and  a  width  across  the  top  of 

1  See  note,  page  450. 

2  This  flume  was  started  in  1891  by  the  Fresno  Flume  and  Irrigation  Com- 
pany for  irrigation  purposes,  connecting  the  sawmill  at  Shaver  with  the 
planing  mill  and  shipping  depot  at  Clovis.  Near  the  head,  the  flume  box 
is  rectangular  and  has  sides  12  inches  high  and  a  width  of  48  inches.  On 
the  steep  mountain  pitches  the  sides  are  32  inches  high,  and  on  the  lower  end 
48  inches  high.  The  maximum  grades  are  4^  per  cent  and  the  minimum 
grade  on  the  flats  0.5  per  cent. 

^  The  clamp,  which  is  patented,  is  a  bar  of  5-inch  half-round  iron,  with  a 
1-inch  flat  face  having  recurved  points  at  each  end.  The  boards  are  made 
into  piles  with  the  ends  flush  with  each  other,  a  clamp  is  slipped  over  the  end, 
and  a  wedge  driven  between  two  boards  near  the  center  of  the  unit.  This 
drives  the  points  into  the  outer  boards  and  binds  the  whole  load  together. 


FLUMES  AXD  LOG  SLUICES 


437 


from  30  to  32  inches.  The  boxes  are  supported  on  trestle  work 
similar  to  that  used  for  the  V-fluine,  although  the  construction  is 
stronger. 

The  boxes  of  log  sluices  (Fig.  1,58E)  are  of  larger  size  than  those 
for  lumber  flumes  and  carry  more  water.  They  are  used  chiefly 
to  supplement  stream  driving  by  transporting  logs  through  rocky 


Fig.  1.59.  —  A  V-flume  for  traii.spcjrtiug  Mining  StulLs.     Montana. 

gorges  where  an  excessive  amount  of  water  would  otherwise  be 
required  or  where  boulders  prevent  the  improvement  of  the 
stream  for  loose  driving,  and  for  transporting  logs  over  stretches 
of  streams  whose  banks  are  so  low  that  the  flood  waters  scatter 
the  logs  over  the  lowlands.  They  are  also  used  in  connection 
with  log  haul-ups  to  tranport  logs  from  one  watershed  to  another, 
and,  in  some  cases,  to  transport  logs  directly  from  the  forest 
to  the  mill.  They  have  been  used  frequently  in  the  Lake  States 
and  occasionally  in  the  Northeast. 


438  LOGGING 

On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  water  they  must  carry  to 
float  logs  and  because  of  the  wear-and-tear  they  receive,  the 
boxes  are  made  of  strong  material  supported  on  cribwork  which 
is  kept  as  near  the  ground  as  is  feasible. 

Sluice  boxes  are  sometimes  made  with  two  thicknesses  of  2-inch 
plank,  the  inner  set  being  surfaced  and  tongued  and  grooved  to 
insure  a  tight  joint,  while  the  outer  planks  break  joints  with 
the  inner  and  make  a  tight  box.  A  sluice  of  this  character  built 
in  the  Lake  States  for  white  pine  was  36  inches  wide  at  the  base, 
108  inches  wide  across  the  top,  and  60  inches  high.  The  water 
in  the  sluice  was  controlled  by  half-moon  gates  (Fig.  136),  located 
at  the  mouth  of  storage  reservoirs. 

TRESTLES 

Trestles  may  be  built  of  round  timber  or  of  2-  by  6-inch  or 
4-  by  8-inch  sawed  material.  Flumes  used  for  transporting  sawed 
products  usually  have  a  trestle  made  from  square-edged  material, 
because  it  can  be  secured  at  the  mill  and  transported  to  the  place 
of  construction  in  the  completed  portion  of  the  flume.  Where 
logs,  pulpwood,  acid  wood,  and  other  rough  material  are  trans- 
ported from  the  forest  to  the  manufacturing  plant,  round  timber 
from  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter  is  often  used  for  trestle  construc- 
tion for  it  usually  can  be  secured  in  the  vicinity,  although  some 
prefer  to  erect  a  portable  sawmill  at  the  head  of  the  flume  and 
manufacture  lumber  for  its  construction. 

Caps  for  round  timber  trestles  are  made  either  from  small 
timbers  hewed  on  opposite  faces  to  the  desired  thickness  or  from 
sawed  material.  Stringers  are  usually  made  from  sawed  timber. 
The  braces  for  round  timber  trestles  are  made  from  small  poles. 

Caps  for  square-edged  timber  trestles  are  made  from  2-  by  6-, 
4-  by  4-,  or  4-  by  6-inch  material,  and  stringers  from  4-  by  4-,  4- 
by  6-,  or  6-  by  6-inch  timbers,  the  choice  depending  on  the  size 
of  the  box,  the  distance  between  trestle  bents,  and  the  amount  of 
water  carried. 

Braces  for  the  box  are  placed  along  the  stringers  at  2-,  4-,  or 
8-foot  intervals,  depending  on  the  length  of  the  span,  the  form  of 
the  box,^  and  the  strength  required  at  special  points,  such  as 

1  A  V-box  with  a  backbone  for  fluming  lumber  requires  bracing  only  at 
8-foot  intervals,  while  a  box  flume  should  have  braces  every  4  feet  on  a  24- 
foot  span.     Loading  points  on  log  flumes  are  often  braced  at  2-foot  intervals. 


FLUMES  AND   LOG  SLUICES 


439 


440 


LOGGING 


loading  stations.     They  may  be  made  from  2-  by  4-inch  joists  or 
from  soHd  4-inch  blocks  (Fig.  158A  and  B). 

A  practical  type  of  trestle^  for  a  lumber  flmne  under  75  feet 


Fig.  161.  —  A  Five-leg  Trestle  for  Heights  Greater  than  75  feet. 

in  height  has  two  legs  made  from  2-  by  6-inch  joists,  doubled 
and  braced  (Fig.  160).  For  heights  greater  than  75  feet  a 
trestle  with  five  legs  is  used  (Fig.  161). 

1  Designed  by  F.  M.  Kettenring,  C.  E.,  Vancouver,  Washington. 


FLUMES  AXD  LOG  SLUICES  441 

Two  4-  by  6-inch  stringers  rest  on  the  caps  which  are  spiked 
to  the  trestle.  Sohd  braces  which  support  the  sides  of  the  V-box 
are  placed  on  the  stringers  at  8-foot  intervals.  The  details  of 
the  brace  and  other  features  of  the  box  are  shown  in  Fig.  158A. 

TERMINALS 

Flume  terminals  are  of  several  different  types.  The  choice 
is  dependent  largely  on  the  kind  of  material  handled  and  its 


Fig.   162.  — 'I'lic  T,riMm;,l  ,,1   ;,    I,.-   Mum-,   n^  ,r   ihc   Dcerlodge  National 
Forest.     This  type  i.s  known  ;i.s  the  "elejihant."     Montana. 

disposal  at  destination.  Logs,  pulpwood,  and  rough  stock  are 
often  dumped  into  streams  thus  obviating  the  necessity  for  any 
special  form  of  terminal. 

On  the  Allen  flume^  in  the  Deerlodge  National  Forest  in 
Montana  round  mining  timbers  are  transported  to  a  storage 
depot  where  they  are  loaded  on  cars  and  hauled  to  destination. 
The  flume  is  about  20  feet  high  at  the  dump  and  the  logs  are  run 
out  upon  rollers  on  a  platform.  These  carry  the  logs  to  the  point 
where  they  are  rolled  upon  cars.     The  water  from    the    flume 

'  See  note,  page  452. 


442  LOGGING 

falls  upon  a  watervvheel  which  drives  the  rollers  when  the  latter 
are  thrown  into  gear. 

Another  type  of  terminal,  known  as  the  "elephant,"  is  shown 
in  Fig.  162.  The  flume  forks  several  times  near  the  terminal 
and  forms  branches.  Logs  are  diverted  into  a  given  branch  by 
closing  the  branches  not  in  use,  and  the  logs  are  run  out  to  the 
end  of  the  terminal  and  fall  in  a  rough-and-tumble  heap  below. 

The  type  of  terminal  shown  in  A,  Fig.  163,  is  often  used  when 
lumber  is  dumped  on  platforms  or  loading  stations.  Lumber 
shoots  out  from  the  end  of  the  flume  and  piles  up  on  the  platform 
at  the  base  of  the  terminal.  When  one  side  becomes  filled  the 
shunt  board  is  turned  and  the  lumber  diverted  to  the  opposite 
side. 

A  form  of  terminal  similar  to  B,  Fig.  163,  may  be  used  for 
crossties  and  heavy  timber.  The  timbers  are  removed  by  hand 
from  the  rollers  and  piled  on  the  unloading  platform  or  on  trucks. 


The  practice  followed  in  flume  location  will  depend  upon  the 
data  available  to  the  engineer  previous  to  starting  the  work. 
If  a  topographic  map  of  the  region  is  available,  possible  routes 
usually  can  be  determined  from  it.  When  such  a  map  is  not  in 
the  possession  of  the  locator  a  reconnaissance  survey  is  necessary 
in  order  that  a  sketch  map  may  be  prepared  showing  the  im- 
portant topographic  features,  especially  with  reference  to  differen- 
tial elevations,  and  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  any  special  field 
problems  which  may  influence  location. 

A  preliminary  survey  is  made  to  enable  the  engineer  to  make  a 
choice  of  one  of  the  several  possible  routes.  This  work  may  be 
done  satisfactorily  with  a  transit  using  the  needle  for  direction 
and  taking  stadia  readings  for  distance  and  elevation.  A  topog- 
rapher should  accompany  the  party  and  make  a  sketch  map  of 
the  territory  for  100  feet  or  more  on  each  side  of  the  proposed 
line.  The  records  made  by  the  engineer  should  include,  in 
addition  to  the  instrumental  data,  complete  notes  on  stream  cross- 
ings, flume  feeders,  private  holdings  crossed  and  any  other  data 
that  may  have  a  bewaring  on  the  final  construction  of  the  flume. 
A  map  of  the  route,  and  a  profile  of  the  survey  is  prepared,  follow- 
ing the  completion  of  the  preliminary  survey. 

The  final  survey  must  be  made  with  accuracy,  stakes  being 


FLUMES  AXD   LOG  SLUICES 


443 


i=  s  '  '  -S 


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444 


LOGGING 


set  as  for  a  railroad  survey  and  a  line  of  levels  established.  The 
grade  line  having  been  determined  from  a  profile  map,  it  is 
established  in  the  field.^  Center  stakes  for  the  bents  are  es- 
tablished at  determined  intervals,  and  following  this  the  grade 
stakes  are  set  for  the  batter-post  mud-sills.  The  data  for  the 
base  of  each  trestle  bent  are  calculated  for  the  use  of  the  con- 


ook 

3"  Clearance 

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Inches  of  Ci 
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0                  10 

wffMiriifHJim 

20                   30                   4( 

Flume  Curvat 

50                   60                   70                 80 
ure-Degrees 

Fig.   164.  —  Graph  Showing  the  Permissible  Fhime  Curvature  in  Degrees 
for  Logs  of  Given  Lengths  and  Crook. 

structors,  and  show  the  length  of  the  two  lower  sash  braces,  the 
distance  along  the  batter  posts,  and  the  length  each  batter  post 
must  extend  below  the  first  sash  brace  in  order  that  the  trestle 
may  stand  plumb  on  the  mud-sill.  The  determination  of  the 
length  of  each  sash  brace  is  important  because  it  governs  the 
batter  of  the  posts  and  if  it  is  not  properly  calculated  the  spacing 
between  the  posts  under  the  cap  will  vary. 

Careful  consideration  must  be  given  to  curves  and  the  maxi- 
mum degree  of  curvature  required  for  the  longest  material  that  is 
to  be  handled  must  be  determined. 

The  relation  of  log  lengths,  both  straight  and  crooked,  and  the 
permissible  degrees  of  curvature  are  shown  in  Fig.  164.2 

1  The  grade  line  of  a  flume  is  the  cut-off  height  of  the  trestle  bents,  which 
is  the  base  of  the  caps. 

2  From  The  Design  of  Log  Flumes,  by  J.  P.  Martin,  Engineering  News, 
Nov.  14,  1912. 


FLUMES  AXD  LOG  SLUICES  445 

Curves  at  the  base  of  steep  grades  should  be  avoided,  because 
jams  will  form  which  will  not  only  damage  the  flume  but  will 
also  cause  the  lumber  to  leave  it.  The  most  desirable  grades 
for  a  straight  flume  are  3  per  cent  or  more.  Grades  up  to  75 
per  cent  may  be  used  on  short  stretches,  provided  all  sharp  changes 
in  elevation  have  properly  proportioned  vertical  curves. 

CONSTRUCTIOX 

The  general  methods  of  constructing  a  V-flume  may  be  illus- 
trated by  one  built  in  Washington  for  the  daily  transport  of  40,000 
board  feet  of  lumber  and  crossties  which  ranged  in  length  from  8 
to  32  feet. 

The  flume  had  a  maximum  height  of  128  feet,  maximum 
curves  of  8  degrees,  and  a  3  per  cent  grade  on  the  upper  part 
and  0.66  per  cent  on  the  lower  end.  Lumber  floated  at  an  average 
rate  of  3  miles  per  hour. 

Bents  were  placed  15.75  feet  apart  for  heights  of  65  feet  and 
under,  and  23.5  feet  apart  for  heights  in  excess  of  this.  The 
batter  posts  on  all  trestles  under  75  feet  were  spaced  4  feet  apart 
at  the  cap,  and  for  heights  greater  than  this  5  feet.  The  batter 
in  all  cases  was  1  in  4.  In  the  bent  construction  only  three 
sizes  of  lumber  were  used,  namely,  1-  by  6-inch,  2-  by  6-inch, 
and  2-  by  4-inch,  the  latter  being  used  for  the  fore-and-aft  brac- 
ing. As  a  rule  only  16-  and  24-foot  lengths  were  used,  because 
tliis  simplified  the  work,  reduced  the  tune  lost  in  handling,  and 
very  little  lumber  was  wasted.  A  ''select  common"  grade  of 
lumber  was  used.  The  first  24-foot  section  of  each  bent  was 
framed  on  the  ground,  the  foot  of  each  batter  post  being  laid 
on  or  near  the  mud-sill  on  which  it  was  to  rest.  Bracing  was 
made  from  1-  by  6-inch  and  2-  by  6-inch  material.  When  ready, 
the  bent  was  hoisted  in  place,  and  set  on  the  mud-sills  by  the  aid 
of  a  block  and  tackle  attached  near  the  top  of  the  nearest  bent. 
When  in  position  it  was  plumbed  up  and  spiked  to  the  mud-sill. 
A  scantling  2  by  6  inches  by  16  feet  was  then  placed  against  the 
outside  of  each  post  and  securely  nailed  to  it  with  20-penny 
spikes.  Fore-and-aft  braces  (Fig.  160)  were  then  nailed  on  until 
the  top  of  the  16-foot  post  was  reached  when  another  2-  by  6- 
inch  by  24-foot  scantling  was  set  on  top  of  the  first  post  with  a 
lap  of  16  feet  on  the  inner  one.  More  fore-and-aft  braces  were 
then  placed.     The  addition  of  2-  by  6-inch  by  24-foot  scantlings 


446  LOGGING 

continued,  with  proper  bracing,  until  the  cut-off  height  was  reached. 
On  the  15.75-foot  span  a  block  and  tackle  was  used  on  each  batter 
post  for  elevating  the  material  when  the  height  became  too  great 
for  handing  it  up.  On  the  23.5-foot  span,  lines  also  were  hung 
on  the  rear  bent  to  aid  in  raising  the  24-foot  fore-and-aft  braces. 

The  cut-off  point  of  the  bent  was  established  only  when  sev- 
eral hundred  feet  of  trestle  had  been  built.  A  wye  level  was 
then  placed  on  a  staging  built  on  top  of  a  bent  and  the  line  of 
levels  established  by  it.  The  2-  by  6-inch  caps  were  elevated 
and  placed  in  position  as  soon  as  the  posts  were  cut  off.  Cross- 
bracing  was  put  on  after  several  hundred  feet  of  trestle  was 
erected  (Fig.  160).  Bents  exposed  to  the  wind  were  also  strength- 
ened by  wire  guys. 

The  construction  crew  was  made  up  of  from  six  to  eight  men, 
four  of  whom  worked  aloft  continuously.  On  low  work  one  man 
handled  and  sent  up  all  lumber  and  another  was  engaged  in 
framing  the  lower  sections. 

The  lumber  was  hauled  as  near  as  possible  to  the  point  where 
it  was  to  be  used,  and  was  assorted  and  piled  where  it  could  be 
reached  with  the  least  delay.  One  man  built  the  boxes  in  16- 
or  24-foot  sections  at  the  upper  end  of  the  flume,  placed  the 
brackets  inside  each  section,  and  placed  it  and  the  4-  by  6-inch 
stringers  and  the  foot  planks  in  the  flume  ready  to  float  to  the 
front.  A  man  walked  the  flume  and  kept  the  material 
moving. 

Two  top  men  at  the  front  placed  the  stringers  and  foot  planks 
in  position,  trimmed  the  boxes,  set  them  in  place,  adjusted  the 
brackets  and  nailed  them  to  the  boxes.  A  crew  of  four  men 
placed  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  16-foot  sections  in  ten  hours. 
This  did  not  include  an  8-inch  top  board  on  the  box  which  was 
not  added  until  the  remainder  of  the  flume  box  was  complete. 

The  amount  of  labor  required  to  erect  a  flume  trestle  increases 
rapidly  with  its  height  and  the  wages  paid  to  top  workers  on  high 
trestles  also  increase  with  the  height  above  ground.  Those 
working  at  elevations  of  75  feet  or  more  may  receive  from  40  to 
60  per  cent  more  than  ground  workers. 

The  number  of  days'  labor,  the  pounds  of  nails  and  the  thou- 
sands of  })oard  feet  of  lumber  required  to  Imild  trestles  of  specified 
heights  and  of  the  types  shown  in  Figs.  160  and  161  are  given  in 
the  Table  VIII.     The  construction  of  the  box  and  foot-boards  re- 


FLUMES  AND   LOG  SLUICES 


447 


quired  68,485  board  feet  of  liiniber  and  approximately  2800  pounds 
of  nails,  per  mile. 

Table  VIII 

AMOUNTS  OF  LUMBER,  NAILS  AND  DAYS'  LABOR  REQUIRED 

TO  CONSTRUCT  LUMBER  FLUME  TRESTLES  OF 

VARIOUS  HEIGHTSi 


Height  in  feet 

10 

15 

20 

25 

.30 

35 

40 

45 

Lumber,  board  feet.  . 

Nails,  pounds 

Labor   days 

50 
1.0 
0.10 

60 
1.75 
0.10 

75 
2.0 
0.10 

125 

3.75 

0.20 

200 
5.0 
0.40 

350 

7.0 
0.50 

500 
9.5 
0.60 

600 
10.5 
0.70 

Height  in  feet 

SO 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

Lumber,  board  feet... 

Nails,  pounds  

Labor,  days . 

750 
12.0 
1.00 

1000 
17.0 
1.30 

1300 
20.5 
1.60 

1500 
25.0 
1.90 

1750 
31.0 
2.30 

2000 
35.0 
2.70 

2150 
40.5 
3  10 

Height  in  feet 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

Lumber,  board  feet... 
Nails,  pounds 

2350 
47.0 
3.90 

2550 
51.0 

4.8 

2750 

57.0 

5.5 

3000 
61.5 
6  25 

3250 
76.0 
7  on 

3450 
90.0 
7  7n 

3S50 
112  0 

Labor,  days 

Q   (V\ 

'  See  Figs.  160  and  161. 

The  size  and  estimated  quantity  of  lumber  and  the  number  of 
pounds  of  nails  required  to  build  a  "V"  flume  of  the  type  shown 
in  Fig.  158D  are  given  in  Table  IX.  The  trestle  timbers  are 
for  an  average  height  of  7  feet. 


OPERATIOX 


The  amount  of  water  required  for  a  flume  depends  on  the  size 
of  the  box,  the  grade  and  the  amount  of  leakage.  On  steep 
grades  a  flume  requires  less  water  than  on  low  grades  because 


448 


LOGGING 


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FLUMES  AND   LOG  SLUICES 


449 


the  flume  box  becomes  a  wet  slide  and  the  logs  run  freely  with 
very  little  water.  The  age  of  the  flume  and  the  care  with  which 
it  is  maintained  largely  determine  the  amount  of  leakage:  Forest 
Service  officials  found  that  on  the  Allen  flume  in  Montana  which 


Photofjraph 

Fig.  165.  —  A  Log  Flume  entering  a  Tunnel  by  means  of  which  it  crosses 
the  Continental  Divide.  The  flume  runner  is  holding  back  some  of  the 
mining  timbers  so  that  they  will  not  jam  in  the  tunnel.  The  grade  here 
does  not  exceed  0.5  per  cent.     Montana. 


carries  from  5  to  12  second  feet  of  water  the  leakage  averaged 
0.3  second  feet  per  mile.  They  estimate  that  the  average  leak- 
age in  a  flume  in  good  condition  carrying  from  5  to  10  second 
feet  of  water  will  approximate  0.45  second  feet  per  mile. 

Water  for  flume  operation  is  admitted  from  ponds  or  branch 
flumes  at  the  head  and  also  at  numerous  points  along  the  route 


450  LOGGING 

by  feeders,  or  troughs  which  are  run  from  the  main  stream  or 
some  of  its  branches.  If  the  water  supply  is  hmited,  every  effort 
is  made  to  keep  the  flume  box  tight  to  prevent  waste.  This  is 
not  so  essential,  however,  when  water  can  be  turned  in  at  fre- 
quent intervals. 

The  products  are  placed  in  the  flume  boxes  by  various  means. 
Sawed  lumber  and  crossties  are  usually  shunted  into  the  flume 
from  an  incline  at  the  tail  of  the  mill.  Pulpwood  and  acid  wood 
are  frequently  rolled  or  thrown  into  the  box  from  skidways  or 
floated  in  from  ponds;  while  logs  may  be  rolled  in  from  skidways, 
floated  in  from  artificial  storage  ponds,  or  elevated  by  log  loaders. 
The  use  of  ponds  is  the  simplest  and  cheapest  method,  while 
the  use  of  a  log  loader  is  the  more  expensive. 

Flumes  are  operated  by  crews  that  feed  the  flume;  by  runners 
who  are  stationed  at  points  along  the  route  where  jams  are  apt 
to  occur;  and  by  laborers  who  handle  the  product  at  the  ter- 
minal. The  runners  usually  carry  a  pick-a-roon  to  handle  the 
floating  material.  The  size  of  crew  required  depends  entirely 
on  the  character  of  the  flume,  those  with  many  curves  and  low 
grades  requiring  the  most  runners. 

On  the  Allen  flume  in  Montana,  which  is  about  16  miles  long, 
thirty  flume  tenders  were  required  for  handling  about  3500  mining 
stulls  and  logs  daily.  Four  men  fed  the  flume  and  twenty-sLx 
men  patroled  it,  the  greater  number  being  required  where  the 
flume  crossed  the  Continental  Divide  on  a  very  low  grade. 

On  the  American  Gulch  flume  in  the  same  section  five  men 
were  required  on  a  flume  about  one  mile  long  the  daily  run  on 
which  averaged  from  800  to  1100  mining  stulls.  Two  men  fed 
the  flume  and  three  men  acted  as  patrols. 

A  box  log-flume  in  Oregon,  3|  miles  long,  has  handled  an  aver- 
age of  150,000  board  feet  daily,  ten  men  being  required  to  oper- 
ate it.^ 

NOTES  TO   CHAPTER  XXIII 

Page  436.  A  l:)ox  flume  3|  miles  long  for  the  transportation  of  logs  has  been 
used  in  Oregon.  The  problem  confronting  the  operator  was  to  transport  timber 
out  of  a  rolling  plateau  region  down  to  a  mill  several  miles  distant.  Owing  to 
the  rough  character  of  the  country  the  cost  of  railroad  construction  was  prohibi- 
tive. The  engineering  problems  encountered  were  not  easy  to  solve  because  the 
water  supply  during  the  lowest  stages  did  not  exceed  100  miners'  inches  and  ex- 

1  See  note  on  page  450. 


FLUMES  AND   LOG  SLUICES  451 

traordinary  efforts  had  to  be  made  to  conserve  it.  Some  canyons  from  which 
timber  was  to  be  transported  had  no  available  water  in  them  and  it  was 
necessary  to  build  the  flume  from  one  watershed  to  another  to  get  the  timber  out. 

The  preliminary  work  consisted  of  a  surve}^  of  the  whole  route  and  a  very 
careful  determination  of  the  levels.  The  construction  work  was  begun  at  the 
mill  and  curried  forward  each  year  as  required  to  secure  the  requisite  amount 
of  timber.  The  first  section  of  the  flume  was  built  nearly  on  a  dead  level, 
but  as  the  work  progressed  a  grade  of  1  inch  in  100  feet  was  given. 

The  natural  gradient  greatly  exceeded  that  given  to  the  flume  and  it  was 
necessary  to  build  the  latter  in  three  units,  each  ending  in  a  V-shaped  chute 
which  led  from  the  flume  to  a  pond  at  a  lower  elevation.  These  ponds  were 
about  75  by  100  feet  in  size  and  were  located  at  points  where  the  natural  con- 
ditions favored  their  construction.  They  not  only  served  as  storage  reser- 
voirs for  water  and  points  for  the  change  in  grade  of  the  flume  but  also  as 
places  for  logs  to  enter  the  flume. 

The  grade  line  was  kept  as  near  the  ground  as  possible  in  order  to  avoid 
expensive  trestle  work  and  cuts.  However,  some  cuts  could  not  be  avoided 
and  trestles  had  to  be  built  when  the  flume  crossed  canyons  or  other  depres- 
sions. 

The  flume  box  was  constructed  of  2-  by  12-inch  planks  and  was  6  feet  wide 
and  4  feet  deep,  except  on  sharp  curves  where  it  was  wider.  The  normal 
depth  of  the  water  was  3§  feet.  Trestles  were  built  of  sawed  timbers  and  braces 
of  the  same  sized  timbers  were  placed  along  the  box  at  3-foot  intervals.  A 
running  board  extended  along  one  side  of  the  box  for  the  use  of  flume  tenders. 
Lumber  for  building  the  flume  was  cut  in  a  portable  mill  which  was  kept  as 
near  the  actual  construction  point  as  was  practicable.  This  reduced  the  charge 
for  transport  of  flume  material.  Each  flume  unit  was  provided  with  three 
lift  gates  suspended  from  the  center  of  a  beam  which  was  supported  by  two 
upright  posts  placed  on  either  side  of  the  flume.  One  gate  was  used  for  the 
control  of  the  water  and  the  other  two  for  emergency  purposes.  Should  an 
accident  happen  to  the  gate  in  use,  or  a  log  become  jammed  in  it,  one  or  both  of 
the  others  could  be  closed  and  a  waste  of  water  prevented.  The  gates 
were  opened  bj^  lifting  them  with  a  lever  until  they  cleared  a  2-uich  cleat 
nailed  across  the  bottom  of  the  flume  when  the  force  of  the  water  raised 
them  to  a  horizontal  position.  They  were  then  supported  by  2-  by  4-inch 
joists,  which  were  placed  across  the  flume. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  an  abundance  of  water  was  available  and  a  slight 
current  was  created  in  the  flume  by  keeping  open  a  smaU  extra  gate.  During 
this  season  the  logs  were  floated  loose  and  only  an  occasional  man  was  needed 
to  keep  them  moving  and  to  prevent  jams.  In  the  summer  and  fall  the  water 
was  at  a  low  stage  and  the  logs  were  dogged  together  in  strings  of  from  50  to 
75  (10,000  to  15,000  board  feet)  and  were  towed  along  the  flume  by  a  man  who 
traveled  the  running  board.  The  opening  of  the  large  gates  also  created  an 
artificial  current  which  assisted  in  keeping  the  logs  moving.  The  tow  was 
kept  as  near  the  gate  as  possible  and  when  the  latter  was  opened  the  logs  were 
rushed  through  to  get  the  maximum  benefit  from  the  accumulated  head. 

The  flume  was  built  at  a  cost  of  $3,000  per  mile  and  it  was  estimated  that 
with  minor  repairs,  it  would  last  for  fifteen  years. 


452  LOGGING 

A  SO-inch  log,  or  two  30-inch  logs,  side  by  side,  could  be  floated  in  the  flume, 
except  at  the  gates.  The  logs  ran  three  to  the  thousand  board  feet,  and  the 
average  daily  capacity  of  the  flume  was  150,000  board  feet.  Twenty-four 
million  board  feet  have  been  handled  in  seven  and  one-half  months. 

Page  441.  The  Allen  flume  had  a  34-inch  V-shaped  box,  the  angle  at  the 
vertex  being  63  degrees.  The  box  was  made  of  six  boards  16  feet  long,  five 
of  which  were  2h  by  11  inches,  and  the  sixth  2|  by  12  inches.  The  cracks 
were  battened  by  1-  by  4-inch  strips.  A  6-  by  6-  by  6-inch  backbone  was 
fitted  into  the  vertex.  The  box  was  supported  on  trestle  work,  composed 
of  4-  by  4-inch  uprights,  braced  diagonally  with  two  2-  by  4-inch  timbers, 
on  top  of  which  was  a  4-  by  4-incli  cap.  The  trestles  ranged  in  height  from 
2  feet  to  72  feet,  the  longest  one  being  775  feet.  The  flume  box  was  braced 
by  2-  by  4-inch  timbers  placed  against  the  sides  of  the  box  and  supported 
by  other  timbers  of  the  same  size.     These  timbers  rested  on  the  caps. 

Water  was  supplied  both  from  a  reservoir  at  the  head,  and  by  numerous 
flume  feeders  placed  along  the  route  which  was  about  15  miles  in  length. 

The  grade  varied  from  0.5  per  cent  to  12.5  per  cent. 

There  were  twenty  rock  cuts  from  8  to  20  feet  in  depth  and  one  tunnel 
685  feet  long. 

The  flume  had  a  capacity  of  3500  logs  daily,  an  average  of  116,000  board 
feet. 

The  fluming  season  was  about  five  and  one-half  months. 

Page  450.  The  American  Gulch  flume,  approximately  1  mile  in  length,  in 
the  Deerlodge  National  Forest  in  Montana,  had  a  30-inch  V-box  which  was 
chiefly  supported  on  stringers  laid  on  the  ground.  Very  few  trestles  were 
constructed.  The  flume  could  handle  mining  stulls  15  inches  in  diameter 
and  from  14  to  16  feet  long.  Thirty-three  thousand  board  feet  of  lumber 
and  2755  pounds  of  nails  were  used  in  the  construction  of  the  box.  Seven 
men  built  a  mile  of  flume  in  twenty  days. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE  TO   CHAPTER   XXIII 

Martin,  J.  P.:    The  Design  of  Log  Flumes.     Engineering  News,  Nov.  14, 

1912,  pp.  908-913. 
Robertson,  J.  E. :    The  Log  Flume  as  a  Means  of  Transporting  Logs. 

The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  45-46. 
Starbird,  W.  D.:  Flumes.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  42-44. 
Steel,   Francis  R.:    Lumber  Flumes.     Bulletm  of  the  Harvard  Forest 

Club,  Vol.  I,  1911. 


APPENDIX 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 
AERIAL  TRAMS 

Anonymous:  A  Newly  Patented  Aerial  Logging  Railway.     Western  Lum- 
berman, Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada,  December,  1912,  pp.  40-41. 
Anonymous:  Heavy  Duty  Cable  Tramway.     The  Timberman,  Sept.,  1914, 

pp.  31  and  32  B. 
FoRSTER,  G.  R.:  Das  forstliche  Transportwesen,  Wien,  1888,  pp.  242-250. 
FujiOKA,  M.:  Notes  on  Aerial  Wire  Tramway.     Tokyo,  Japan,  1915. 
Gayer,  Karl:   Forest  Utilization.     (Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry,  2nd. 

edit.,  pp.  346-352;    translated  from  the  German  by  W.   R.   Fisher.) 

Bradbury,  Agnew  and  Company  Ltd.,  London,  1908. 
Jones,  T.  P.:    Experience  with  a  Cable  Tramroad.     The  Timberman,  Oct., 

1913,  pp.  29  to  32. 
Nestos,   R.   R.:    Aerial  Snubbing  Device.     The   Timberman,    Portland, 

Oregon,  April,  1912,  p.  49. 
Newby,  F.  E.:    Handling  Logs  on  Steep  Ground  with  a  Gravity  Cable 

System.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  31-32. 
Riley,  F.  C:   The  Opsal  Aerial  System.     The  Timberman,    Sept.,  1914, 

pp.  33  and  34. 
Rogers,  C.  G.:   Note  on  the  Setikhola  Wire  Ropeway.     Indian  Forester, 

Feb.  1902,  Vol.  XXVIII,  No.  2,  pp.  69-73. 
Steinbeis,  Ferdinand:    Die    Holzbringung   im  bayerischen  Hochgebirge 

unter    den    heutigen    wirtschaftlichen    Verhaltnissen,    Munchen,    1897, 

pp.  31-39. 
Wettich,  Hans:  Moderne  Transportanlagen  im  Dienste  der  Holzgewinnung 

und  Holzindustrie.     Centralblatt  fiir  das  gesamte  Forstwesen,  Oct.,  1912, 

pp.  451  to  460. 

ANIMALS 

Allen,  E.  W.:   The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals.     Farmers'  Bui.  No.  22, 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1901. 
Dalrymple,   Dr.  W.  H.:   Economic  Feeding  of  Work  Animals  used  in 

Logging  Operations.     Lumber  Trade  Journal,  Nov.  1,  1914. 
Dalrymple,    Dr.   W.    H.:    Feeding  Work   Horses   and   Mules.     Lumber 

Trade  Journal,  July  1,  1914. 
Engineer  Field  M.\nual,    Parts   I-VII.     Professional   Papers   No.    29, 

Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.     Fifth  (revised)  edition,  Washington, 

1917,  pp.  453-500. 
Langworthy,  C.  F.:   Principles  of  Horse  Feeding.     Farmers'  Bui.,  No. 

170,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1903. 
455 


456  APPENDIX 


GENERAL 


Braniff,  Edward  A.:  Scientific  Management  and  the  Lumber  Business. 
Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  X,  No.  1,  pp.  9-14. 

Bryant,  R.  C:  Lumber:  Its  Manufacture  and  Distribution.  John  Wiley 
&  Sons,  Inc.,  New  York,  1922. 

Bureau  of  the  Census,  Dept.  of  Commerce  :  Lumber,  Lath,  and  Shingles 
Fourteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  Forest  Products,  1919.  Wash- 
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Cary,  Austin:  Influence  of  Lumbering  upon  Forestry.  Proceedings  of 
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1908,  pp.  66-81. 

Gary,  Austin:  A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen.  Published  by  Har- 
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Defebaugh,  J.  E.:  History  of  the  Lumber  Industry  of  America.  The 
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Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture:  Timber  Depletion,  Lum- 
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Report  on  Senate  Resolution  311.     Washington,  1920. 

Gayer,  Karl:  Forest  Utilization  (Vol.  V  of  Schhch's  Manual  of  Forestry; 
trans,  from  the  German  by  W.  R.  Fisher,  second  edition).  London, 
Bradbury,  Agnew  &  Co.  Ltd  ,  1908. 

Hall,  William  L.,  and  Maxwell,  Hu:  Uses  of  Commercial  Woods  of  the 
United  States:  I.  Cedars,  Cypresses  and  Sequoias,  Bui.  95;  II.  Pines, 
Bui.  99,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C,  1911. 

Hedgecock,  George  Grant:  Studies  upon  some  Chromogenic  Fungi 
which  Discolor  Woods.  Missouri  Botanical  Garden,  St.  Louis,  Seven- 
teenth Annual  Report   1906,  pp.  59-114. 

Hopkins,  A.  D.:  Pinhole  Injury  to  Girdled  Cypress  in  the  South  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  States.     Cir.  82,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Entomology.  Washington,  1907. 

Hopkins,  A  D.:  Waste  and  Reduction  of  Timber  Supplies  Caused  by 
Insects,  and  Methods  of  Prevention  and  Control.  Report  National 
Conservation  Committee,  Senate  Doc.  676,  Vol.  II,  1909,  pp.  469-497. 

Kinney.  J.  P. :  Essentials  of  American  Timber  Law.  John  Wiley  and  Sons, 
Inc.,  New  York,  1917. 

Lumber,  Lath  and  Shingles,  1910,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Wash- 
ington, 1912. 

Morrell,  F.  W.:  Factors  Influencing  Logging  and  Lumbering  Costs  in 
Colorado  National  Forests.  Forest  Club  Annual,  University  of  Ne- 
braska, Lincoln,  1911,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  7. 

Schenck,  C.  a.:  Logging,  Lumbering  or  Forest  LTtilization.  Darmstadt, 
Germany,  1912. 

Sessoms,  H.  W.:  Systematic  Logging  Camp  Records.  The  Timberman, 
Portland,  Oregon,  July,  1911,  pp.  33-36. 

The  American  Lumber  Industry.  Official  Report  Tenth  Annual  Meet- 
ing National  Lumlier  Manufacturers'  Association,  Chicago,  1912. 

The  Lumber  Industry.  Part  I,  Standing  Timber,  Report  of  the  Bureau 
of  Corporations,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  Washington,  1913. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  457 

Van  Orsdel,  John  P.:    Proper  Type  of  Transportation  in  Logging.     The 

Timberman,  March  1923,  pp.  42  and  43. 
Von  Schrenck,  Hermann:   The  ''Bluing"  and  "Red  Rot"  of  the  Western 

Yellow  Pine,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Black  Hills  Forest  Reserve. 

Bui.  No.  36,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Plant  Industry,  Washington,  1903. 

LABOR 

Industrial  Accident  Commission,  California:  Logging  and  Sawmill 
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Industrial  Insurance  Department,  State  of  Washington:  First 
Annual  Report  for  the  twelve  months  ending  September  30,  1912. 
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Pratt,  C.  S.:  Washington  Workmen's  Compensation  Act  is  Successful  in 
its  Operation.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  74-77. 

Sparks,  J.  W.  and  Forest,  E.  H.  T.:  The  Lumbermen's  Safety  First-First 
Aid  Manual.  Pub.  for  Industrial  Dept.,  International  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Asso- 
ciation Press,  New  York. 

State  Safety  Board  of  Washington:  Safety  Standards  for  Logging. 
The  Timberman,  April,  1920,  pp.  45-48. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics:  Industrial  Survey  in 
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U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics:  Wages  and  Hours 
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U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics:  Workmen's  Com- 
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U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  L.-^.bor  Statistics:  Workmen's  Com- 
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U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor:  Description  of  Occupations,  Logging  Camps  and 
Sawmills.     Washington,  1918. 


LOGGING   CAMPS 

Bein,  F.  L.  :  Refrigerating  System  for  the  Cook  House.  The  Timberman, 
April,  1920  and  Oct.,  1920. 

Commission  of  Immigration  and  Housing  of  California:  Advisory 
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Gibbons,  W.  H.:  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
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Lipscomb,  Dr.  W.  N.:  Logging  Camp  Sanitation.  The  Timberman,  Nov., 
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RuEGNiTZ,  W.  C. :  Eliminating  Waste  in  the  Boarding  House.  The  Timber- 
man, Sept.  and  Nov.,  1917. 


458  APPENDIX 

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Tharaldsen,  Thorfinn:  Investigation  of  Feeding  Operations.  The  Tim- 
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Management.     Bui.  93,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washmgton,  1911,  p.  10. 
Williams,  Asa  S. :  The  Mechanical  Traction  of  Sleds.     Forestry  Quarterly, 

Vol.  VI,  pp.  354-362. 

Southern  Yellow  Pine. 

Chapman,  C.  S.  :  A  Working  Plan  for  Forest  Lands  in  Berkeley  County, 
South  CaroUna.  Bui.  No.  56,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  For.,  Washington,  1905, 
pp.  29-30. 

Chapman,  H.  H.:  An  Experiment  in  Logging  Longleaf  Pine.  Forestry 
Quarterly,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  385-395. 

Foster,  J.  H.:  Forest  Conditions  in  Louisiana.  Bui.  114,  U.  S.  For.  Ser., 
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Reed,  Franklin  W.:  A  Working  Plan  for  Forest  Lands  in  Central  Ala- 
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Southwest. 

Woolsey,  Jr.,.  T.  S.:  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 
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West. 

Allen,  E.  T.:  The  Western  Hemlock.  Bui.  No.  33,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  For., 
1902,  pp.  28-30. 

Berry,  Swift:  Notes  on  the  Management  of  Redwood  Lands.  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  VI,  No.  1,  Washington, 
1911,  pp.  104-107. 

Brigham,  E.  J.:   Tractor  Logging.     The  Timberman,  Oct.,  1920,  pp.  86-87. 

Bruce,  Donald:  The  Relative  Cost  of  Making  Logs  from  Small  and  Large 
Timber.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Uni- 
versity of  California,  Bui.  339,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  1922. 

Cooper,  Albert  W.:  Sugar  Pine  and  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  California. 
Bui.  No.  69,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  1906,  pp.  30-34. 

Drissen,  J.  P.:  Time  Study  of  Motor  Truck  Logging  of  Yellow  Pine. 
The  Timberman,  August,  1921,  p.  97. 

EcKBO,  Nels  B.:  Logging  in  the  Redwoods.  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol. 
VII,  No.  2,  pp.  139-142. 


460  APPENDIX 

GiRARD,  James  W.:  Inland  Empire  Sawing  and  Skidding  Studies.  The 
Timberman,  Sept.,  1920,  pp.  36  to  38. 

GiRARD,  James  W.:  Tractor  and  Horse  Skidding  in  the  Inland  Empire. 
The  Timberman,  Nov.,  1922. 

Grainger,  M.  A.:   Woodsmen  of  the  West.     E.  Arnold,  London,  1908. 

Greenamyre,  H.  H.:  Lumbering  in  Colorado.  Forest  Club  Annual, 
1909,  University  of  Nebra.ska,  Lincoln,  pp.  43-G(). 

Hallett,  W.  E.  S.:  Lumbering  Cottonwood  in  Nebraska.  Forest  Club 
.\nnual,  1909,  Univ.  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  pp.  35-38. 

Hoffman,  Bruce:  The  Sitka  Spruce  of  Alaska.  Proceedings  of  the  So- 
ciety of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  VII,  No.  2,  pp.  232-235. 

Klobucher,  Frank  J. :  Tractor  Skidding  in  the  Inland  Empire.  The  Tim- 
berman, July,  1922. 

Knapp,  F  M.:  Motor  Truck  Logging  Methods.  Univ.  of  Washington, 
Engineering  Experiment  Station,  Bull.  No.  12,  Seattle,  1921. 

Margolin,  Louis:  The  Hand  Loggers  of  British  Columbia.  Forestry 
Quarterly,  Vol.  IX,  No  4,  pp.  562-567. 

Mason,  Fred  R.:  Study  of  Daily  Production  of  Big  Wlieels.  The  Timber- 
man, April,  1921,  p.  39. 

Meiklejohn,  E.  H.:  Truck  Logging.  The  Timberman,  Oct.,  1920,  pp. 
85-86. 

Murray,  L.  T.:  Railroad  Construction  vs.  Donke}'  Hauls.  The  Timber- 
man, Nov.,  1921,  pp.  60-61. 

Peed,  W.  W.:  Methods  Employed  and  the  Costs  Incident  to  Logging 
Redwood.     The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  28-29. 

PoLLEYS,  E.  G.:  a  Northern  Idaho  Lumbering  Operation.  The  Forest 
Club  Annual,  1910,  Univ.  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  pp.  104-111. 

Ross,  Kenneth:  Logging  by  Rail  in  Montana.  The  Timberman,  August, 
1912,  p.  47. 

Spenser,  F.  F.:  Modern  Sugar  and  Yellow  Pine  Operations  in  California. 
The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  70-73. 

Van  Orsdel,  John  P.:  Plans  for  Motor  Truck  Logging.  The  Timber- 
man, July,  1921,  p.  97. 

West  Virginia. 

Farquhar,  Henry  H. :    Cost  of  Mountain  Logging  in  West  Virgmia.     For- 
estry Quarterly,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  255-269. 
RoTHKUGEL,  Max:    Management  of  Spruce  and  Hemlock  Lands  in  West 
Virginia.     Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  40-46. 

LOGGING   RAILROADS 
Construction  and  maintenance. 

Amburn,   W.  W.:    Standardized  Timber  Bridge  for  Logging  Railroads. 

The  Timberman,  Fel:)ruary,  1919. 
Amburn,  W.  W.:     Three-purpose   Pile   Driver.     The   Timberman,   Aug., 

1920,  p.  48A. 
Amburn,  W.  W.:     The  Value  of  Drainage.     The  Timberman,  Sept.,  1920, 
p.  60. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  461 

Amburn,  W.  W.:  Location  and  Construction  of  Branch  Lines.  The 
Timberman,  Oct.,  1920,  pp.  58-59. 

Anonymous:  The  Use  of  Explosives  in  Blowing  Stumps.  The  Timber- 
man,  Dec,  1921,  p.  128. 

Byrkit,  G.  M.:  Machme  for  Picking  up  Railroad  Track.  The  Timber- 
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Byrne,  Austin  T.:  Highway  Construction.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  Inc., 
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Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army:  Military  Railways.  Professional 
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Cowling,  H.  G.:  Standard  Frame  Trestles  for  Logging  Railroad.  The 
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Crosby,  Lloyd  R. :  Construction  of  Logging  Railroad  Tunnels.  The  Tim- 
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Davis,  Minot:  Steam  Shovel  in  Logging  Railroad  Construction.  The  Tim- 
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Engineers'  Hand  Book:  Useful  Information  for  Practical  Men.  Com- 
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Fish,  J.  L.  C:  Earthwork  Haul  and  Overhaul.  John  Wiley  and  Sons, 
Inc.,  New  York,  1913. 

Gillette,  H.  P.:  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation.  McGraw  Hill  Book 
Co.,  New  York,  1916. 

Gillette,  H.  P.:  Earthwork  and  its  Cost.  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co., 
New  York,  1912. 

Gillette,  H.  P.:  Hand  Book  of  Cost  Data.  Myron  C.  Clark  Pub.  Co., 
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Johnson,  J.  B.:  Theory  and  Practi.se  of  Surveying.  John  Wiley  and 
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Kindelan,  J. :  The  Trackman's  Helper.     Clark  Book  Co.,  New  York,  1900. 

Kline,  C.  W.  :  Logging  Railroad  Maintenance.  The  Timberman,  March. 
1923. 

Lamb,  Frank  H.:  Steam  Shovel  in  Logging  Railroad  Construction.  The 
Timberman,  Oct.,  1920. 

Martin,  C.  S.:  Steam  Shovel  in  Logging  Road  Construction.  The  Tim 
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NoRBY,  J.  E.:  The  Norby  Track-laying  and  Lifting  Machine.  The  Tim 
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O'Neil,  W.  J.:  Logging  Railroad  Bridges.  The  Timberman,  May,  1921, 
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Pope,  C.  R.:  Constructing  a  High  Pile  Bridge.  The  Timberman,  Feb., 
1915. 

Powers,  Fred  W.:  Preventing  Track  Creeping  on  Grades.  The  Timber- 
man, Oct.,  1919. 

Somerville,  S.  S.:  Building  Logging  Railroads  with  a  Pile-driver.  The 
Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  37-38. 

Stamm,  Samuel  A. :  A  Unique  Logging  Railroad  Bridge.  The  Timberman. 
July,  1916. 


462  APPENDIX 

Stewart,  D.  E.:  Combination  Crane  and  Shovel  in  Road  Work.  The 
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Inclines. 

Clark,  A.  W.:  Overcoming  Grades  too  Steep  for  Geared  Locomotives. 
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Jackson,  Thos.  B.:  Log  Lowering  Systems  in  the  Inland  Empire.  The 
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MacLafferty,  T.  H.:  Handling  Logging  Trains  on  Excessive  Grades. 
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Potter,  E.  O.:  Utilization  of  the  Cable  Locomotive.  The  Timberman, 
August,  1909,  p.  34. 

Wentworth,  G.  K.:  Lowering  Logs  on  a  3200-foot  Incline.  The  Timber- 
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Williams,  Asa  S. :  Logging  by  Steam.  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  pp. 
19-21. 

Loading  and  unloading  log  cars. 

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EvBNSON,  O.  J.:  An  Improved  Log-loading  System.  The  Timberman, 
August,  1912,  p.  52. 

Gibbons,  W.  H.:  Logging  in  the  Douglas  Fir  Region.  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  Bui.  711.     Washington,  1918,  pp.  229-238. 

O'Gorman,  J.  S.:  Unloading  Log  Cars  with  a  Stationary  Rig.  The  Tim- 
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O'Hearne,  James:  Tilting  Log  Dumps.  The  Timberman,  August,  1912, 
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Van  Orsdel,  John  T.:  Cableway  Loading  System.  The  Timberman, 
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Ellis,  L.  R.:    Necessity  for  an  Accurate  Topographic  Map  in  Logging 

Operations.     Timberman,  July,  1911,  pp.  49-53. 
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The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  65-67. 
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Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  47-49. 
Rankin,  R.  L.:    Practical  Topographical  Surveys  for  Building  Logging 

Roads.     The  Timberman,  March,  1912,  p.  27. 
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Logging  Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  p.  64. 
Van  Orsdel,  John  P.:    How  to  Obtain  the  Highest  Practical  Efficiency  in 

Woods  Operations.     The  Timberman,  Sept.,  1910,  pp.  48-51. 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY  463 

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POWER   LOGGING 

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Berry,  E.  J.:  Advantages  Accruing  to  the  Adoption  of  Electricity  in 
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Bourns,  R.  T.:  Lawson  Overhead  Yarding  and  Loading  System.  The 
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Cole,  C.  O.  :  Difficulties  Confronting  Electric  Log  Haulage.  The  Timber- 
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Frink,  Francis  G. :   Washington  High-lead.     The  Timberman,  Sept.,  1915. 

Gaskill,  E.  a.:  Power  Logging  Equipment  and  Methods.  American 
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Grammer,  E.  S.:  Evolution  of  the  Logging  Donkey.  The  Timberman, 
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Gray,  R.  E.:  Electricity  in  the  Lumber  and  Logging  Industries.  The 
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Gr.\y,  R.  E.:  Progress  in  Electric  Logging.  The  Timberman,  Nov.,  1921, 
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HiNE,  Thomas  W.:  Utility  of  the  Duplex  Logging  Engine  and  the  Duple.x 
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Timberman,  August,  1912,  p.  53. 


464  APPENDIX 

McGiFFERT,  J.  R. :  Development  of  Cableway  Skidder.  American  Lum- 
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Powers,  F.  W.  :  Utilizing  One  Spar  Tree  for  Two  Skylines.  The  Timber- 
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Stimson,  Chas.  W.:  Adoption  of  the  Lidgerwood  Skidder  System  (cable- 
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Taylor,  W.  S.  :  Different  Stages  in  the  Evolution  of  Overhead  System  of 
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ViNNEDGE,  R.  W.:  A  Composite  Flying  Machine.  The  Timberman,  Oct., 
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ViNNEDGE,  R.  W.:  Overhead  Logging  Systems.  The  Timberman,  Nov., 
1922,  pp.  45  to  49. 

Williams,  A.sa  S.:  Logging  by  Steam.  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  No. 
1,  pp.  1-33. 

Wirkkala,  Oscar:  The  Wirkkala  Slack  Line  System.  The  Timberman, 
Nov.,  1921,  pp.  58-59. 

SLIDES 

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Club,  Vol.  I,  1911 


466  APPENDIX 

Streams. 

Anonymous:    Davis  Ocean-going  Log  Raft.     West  Coast  Lumberman, 

Dec.  15,  1917,  pp.  28  and  29. 
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Bridges,  J.  B. :   Laws  Governing  the  Use  of  Streams  for  Logging  Purposes 

(Pacific  Coast).     The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  49-51. 
Fastabend,   John  A.:     Ocean  Log  Rafting.     The  Timberman,   August, 

1909,  pp.  38-39. 


TERMS  USED  IN  LOGGING 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  ^ 

(Letters  in  parentheses  following  definitions  indicate  the  forest  regions  (see  Fig.  1)  in  which 
the  terms  as  defined  are  used. 

(Gen.)  =  General  =  In  all  forest  regions  of  the  United  States. 
(C.  H.  F.)  =  Central  Hardwood  Forest. 
(N.  F.)  =  Northern  Forest. 
(App.)  =  Appalachian  Forest. 
(L.  S.)  =  Lake  States  Forest. 
(N.  W.)  =  North  Woods. 
(S.  F.)  =  Southern  Forest. 
(R.  M.  F.)  =  Rocky  Mountain  Forest. 
(P.  C.  F.)  =  Pacific  Coast  Forest. 
(E.  C.)  =  Eastern  Canada. 
(Cal.)  =  California. 
In  a  few  instances  very  local  terms  are  ascribed  to  a  State  instead  of  to  a  forest  region.] 

Acid  wood.     Wood  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  wood  alcohol  and  other 

products  of  distillation.     (N.  F.,  App.) 
Aerial  line.     See  Skyline. 
Aerial  skidder.     See  Cableway  skidder. 
Alder  grab.     The  stem  of  an  alder,  or  other  small  tree,  which  is  bent  over  and 

plugged  into  a  hole  bored  in  a  boom  stick,  or  secured  in  some  other  way, 

to  hold  a  boom  or  logs  inshore.     (N.  F.) 
Alley,  n.     See  Dingle. 
Alligator,  n.     LA  boat  u.sed  in  handling  floating  logs.     It  can  be  moved 

overland  from  one  body  of  water  to  another  by  its  own  power,  usually  ap- 
plied through  drum  and  cable.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
2.    5ee  Go-devil. 
Anchor  line.     A  hne  attached  to  a  small  buoy  and  to  one  fluke  of  an  anchor 

used  in  towing  a  raft  of  logs.     It  is  employed  to  free  the  anchor  when  fast 

to  rocks  or  snags.     (N.  F.) 
Angle  bar.     A  steel  plate  «nth  a  flange  base,  having  from  four  to  six  holes, 

through  which  bolts  may  be  inserted.     Two  angle  bars  are  used  to  hold 

steel  rails  together  at  the  joints,  one  angle  bar  being  placed  against  each 

side  of  the  web  and  both  bolted  to  it.     (Gen.) 
Apron,  n.     1.  A  platform  projecting  domistream  from  the  sluiceway  of  a 

dam  to  launch  well  into  the  stream  logs  which  pass  through  the  sluiceway. 

(Gen.) 
2.    A  platform  built  of  timbers  at  the  foot  of  a  slide,  which  guides  in  the 

desired  direction  logs  leaving  the  slide.     (Gen.) 
Ark,  n.     See  Wanigan. 
At  the  base.     When  referring  to  the  diameter  of  standing  timber,  a  term  used 

in  timber  contracts,  meaning  at  the  ground  as  contrasted  with  the  usual 

'  From  Forest  Terminology,  Part  II.  Terms  used  in  the  Lumber  In- 
dustry. Prepared  by  the  Author  as  Chairman  of  a  Committee  of  the  Society 
of  American  Foresters. 

469 


470  APPENDIX 

custom  of  measuring  at  the  stump.     (Supreiiic  Court  of  North  Carohna, 
54  Southeastern  Reporter,  8-44.) 

Backbone,  ?i.  A  triangular  piece  of  wood  which  is  placed  in  the  apex  of  a 
V-box  flume.     (Gen.) 

Backing  chain.  A  chain  used  to  prevent  logging  trucks  from  shding  under 
the  logs.  It  is  used  chiefly  on  long  trains  where  there  is  a  great  strain. 
(P.  C.  F.) 

Back  line.     See  Haul  back. 

Back-spiker,  n.  One  of  the  members  of  a  crew  which  completes  the  spiking  of 
rails  to  crossties  after  the  track  has  been  laid  by  the  steel  gang.     (Gen.) 

Bag  boom.  An  open  "  limber"  boom  used  to  impound  logs  at  the  mouth  of 
a  stream  emptying  into  a  lake  or  similar  body  of  water.  The  ends  of  the 
boom  are  made  fast  to  the  shore  below  the  mouth  of  the  stream,  and  when 
the  boom  is  filled  the  ends  are  brought  together  and  closed,  forming  a  round 
boom.     (L.  S.)     *S'ee  Round  boom. 

Ballhooter,  n.     One  who  rolls  or  slides  logs  down  a  hillside.     (App.) 

Bank,  v.    See  Bank  up,  to. 

Bank,  n.     1.  See  Landing. 

2.  The  logs  cut  or  skidded  in  one  day  above  the  required  amount  and 
held  over  by  the  saw  crew  or  skidders,  to  be  reported  when  the  required 
daily  number  is  not  reached.     (N.  F.) 

Banking  ground.     See  Landing. 

Bank  up,  to.     To  pile  up  logs  on  a  landing.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:    bank,  roll  up. 

Baptist  cone.     .See  Cap. 

Barge  boom.  A  boom,  the  upstream  end  of  which  is  attached  to  a  barge 
anchored  in  the  stream.  It  is  used  on  navigable  streams  (on  which  per- 
manent works  are  not  permitted)  in  combination  with  a  fin  boom  to  divert 
logs  from  one  side  of  a  stream  to  the  other.     (S.  F.) 

Bark  dray.     See  Ranking  jumper. 

Barker,  n.     1.  One  who  peels  bark  in  gathering  tanbark.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   peeler,  spudder. 

2.  A  machine  used  to  remove  bark  from  pulpwood. 

3.  See  Rosser,  1. 
Barking  iron.     See  Spud. 

Bark  ladder.  A  platform  mounted  on  a  wagon  or  sled  and  used  in  hauling 
tanbark.     (N.  F.) 

Bark  mark.  A  symbol  chopped  into  the  side  of  a  log  to  indicate  its  owner- 
ship; when  used  with  the  end  mark  it  serves  as  an  additional  means  of 
identification.     (Gen.)     See  Mark. 

Syn.:   catch  mark  (L.  S.),  side  mark  (N.  F.),  contramarque  (E.  C). 

Bark  marker.     One  who  cuts  the  bark  mark  on  logs.     (Gen.) 

Bark  rack.     A  frame  used  to  hold  bark  on  a  sled.     (N.  W.) 

Bark  slide.  A  V-shaped  trough  used  on  steep  hillsides  to  slide  tanbark  down 
to  the  roads.     (N.  F.) 

Barn  boss.     One  who  has  charge  of  the  stables  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  feeder.     (N.  W.) 

Barndoor  gate.     In  a  logging  dam  sluiceway,  a  swinging  door  attached  by 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  471 

hinges  to  the  .side  of  the  sluice  .so  that  it  can  be  swung  across  the  opening 

to  prevent  the  outflow  of  water.     (Gen.) 
Batch,  n.     A  raft  of  lumber  composed  of  a  number  of  units.     (S.  F.) 
Batten,  n.     A  log  less  than  11  inches  in  diameter,  inside  bark,  at  the  small 

end.     (Maine.) 
Battery,  n.     Two  or  more  road  engines  for  dragging  logs,  set  at  intervals  on 

a  long  skid  road.     A  "  side  "  may  include  a  "  battery,"  which  in  turn  may 

include  a  roader,  a  "  half-breed  "  and  a  yarding  donkey.     The  term  is  not 

commonly  used.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bean  house.     The  foreman's  office  at  a  depot  camp.     (E.  C.) 
Beaver,  n.     See  Swamper;  Woodpecker. 
Becket,  n.     1.  A  large  hook  formerly  used  in  loading  logs  on  cars  by  means 

of  tackle.     It  is  now  .seldom  used.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.    An  eye  or  grommet  in  a  rope  through  which  another  rope  or  cable  may 

play.     (Gen.) 
Bed  a  tree,  to.     To  level  up  the  path  in  which  a  tree  is  to  fall,  so  that  it  may 

not  be  shattered.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bicycle,  n.     See  Trolley. 
Bigness  scale.     See  Full  .scale. 
Big  wheels.     See  Logging  wheels. 
Billet,  n.     A  short,  round  .section  of  a  log.     (Gen.) 
Binder,  n.     A  springy  pole  used  to  tighten  a  binding  chain.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   jim  binder. 
Binding  chain.     A  chain  used  to  bind  together  a  load  of  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   wrapper  chain.     (N.  F.) 
Binding  logs.     Logs  placed  on  the  top  of  the  chain  binding  a  load,  in  order  to 

take  up  the  slack.     (Gen.) 
Birl,  V.     To  cau.se  a  floating  log  to  rotate  rapidly  by  treading  upon  it.     (Gen.) 
Bitch  chain.     1.  A  short,  heavy  chain  with  hook  and  ring,  used  to  fasten  the 

lower  end  of  a  gin  pole  to  a  sled  or  car  when  loading  logs.     (N.  F.) 

2.  A  short,  heavy  chain  connecting  the  main  Une  and  the  haul  back  line 

of  a  yarding  donkey,  also  serving  as  a  point  of  attachment  for  the  tackle 

fastened  to  the  logs.     When  a  cable  is  used  instead  of  a  chain,  it  is  knowTi 

as  a  bitch  line. 

Syn.:   butt  chain,  butt  hne.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bitch  line.     See  Bitch  chain,  2. 
Black  cypress.     A  term  used  by  woodsmen  to  denote  cypress  timber  of  heavy 

weight.     (S.  F.) 
Blaze,  V.     To  mark,  by  cutting  into  trees,  the  course  of  a  boundary,  road, 

trail  or  the  Uke.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   .spot.     (N.  W.) 
Block,  n.  1.  A  pulley  of  several  types  used  in  power  logging  to  change  the 

direction  of  haul,  or  to  increase  the  pulling  power.     (P.  C.  F.) 
2.  See  Brail. 
Block-and-whip.     Xn  arrangement  of  a  cable  and  block,  to  secure  added 

power  for  moving  logs.     The  free  end  of  the  main  cable,  bearing  a  .swamp 

hook,  is  pas.sed  through  a  block  fastened  to  the  log  to  be  moved,  and  then 

attached  to  a  stump.     When  a  log  has  been  pulled  ahead  as  far  as  practic- 


472  APPENDIX 

able,  the  cable  and  swamp  hook  are  moved  forward  to  another  stump. 
(P.  ('.  F.)     See  Block  hold. 

Block  hold.  An  .arrangement  of  cables  and  blocks  to  secure  added  power  for 
moving  logs.  The  free  end  of  the  main  cable  is  passed  through  a  block 
attached  to  the  log  to  be  moved,  and  then  fastened  to  some  stationary  ob- 
ject. Power  is  then  applied  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  cable.  Two  blocks 
and  three  blocks  respectively  are  attached  to  the  object  to  be  moved. 
(P.  C.  F.)  See  Block-and-whip. 
Syn. :   one-block  hold. 

Block  tender.     See  Chaser. 

Blow,  n.  A  break  in  a  dam,  usually  at  the  base,  due  to  the  lack  of  proper 
toe  piling.     (N.  W.) 

Blow  down.     See  Windfall. 

Blue  jay.     See  Road  monkey. 

Bluing,  n.  The  result  of  fungus  attack,  which  turns  the  sapwood  of  certain 
trees  blue.     (Gen.) 

Board  foot.  A  unit  of  measure  in  the  lumber  trade.  It  is  a  section  12  by 
12  inches  in  size  and  1  inch  thick,  or  its  equivalent.     (Gen.) 

Board  up,  to.     To  place  a  spring  board  in  position.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Bob,  71.     A  single  pair  of  sled  runners  on  which  the  forward  ends  of  logs  are 
loaded.     (L.  S.,  N.  W.) 
Syn.:  sloop.     (E.  C.) 

Bobber,  n.     See  Deadhead. 

Bob  logs,  to.     To  transport  logs  on  a  bob  or  dray.     (N.  F.) 

Body  wood.  Cord  wood  cut  from  those  portions  of  the  stems  of  trees  which 
are  clear  of  branches.     (N.  F.) 

Bolster,  n.     See  Bunk. 

Bolt,  n.  A  segment  sawed  or  split  from  a  short  log.  A  term  usually  applied 
to  blocks  from  which  shingles,  staves  and  vehicle  stock  are  manufactured. 
(Gen.) 

Syn. :   shingle  bolt,  stave  bolt,  spoke  bolt. 

Boom,  n.  Logs  or  timbers  fastened  together  end  to  end  and  used  to  hold 
floating  logs.  The  term  sometimes  includes  the  logs  inclosed,  as  a  boom 
of  logs.     (Gen.) 

Boomage,  n.     Toll  for  use  of  a  boom.     (Gen.) 

Boom  buoy.     See  Boom  stay. 

Boom  chain.     A  short  chain  which  fastens  boom  sticks  end  to  end.     (Gen.) 

Boom  Company.  A  corporation  engaged  in  handling  floating  logs,  and 
owning  booms  and  booming  privileges.     (N.  F.) 

Boom  pin.  A  wooden  plug  used  to  fasten  to  boom  sticks  the  chain,  rope,  or 
withe  which  holds  them  together.     (Gen.) 

Boom  rat.     One  who  works  on  a  boom.     (N.  F.) 

Boom  stay.     A  heavy  weight  used  to  anchor  booms  in  deep  water;   its  po- 
sition is  indicated  by  a  pole  or  float  attached  to  it.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   boom  buoy. 

Boom  stick.     A  timber  which  forms  part  of  a  boom.     (Gen.) 

Bottle  butted.     See  Swell  butted. 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  473 

Bottom,  n.     The  lower  tier  or  layer  of  logs  in  a  joint,  usually  fastened  to- 
gether by  boom  poles  and  pins.     (E.  C.) 
Bottom  loader.     See  Ground  loader. 
Bottom  sill.     See  Mudsill. 

Bow  man.     A  log  driver  who  sits  in  the  forward  end  of  a  bateau. 
Box,  V.     See  Notch. 
Box,  n.     See  Undercut. 

Bracket  boom.     A  stiff  boom,  three  or  four  logs  wide,  the  logs  being  fastened 
together  by  short  boards  placed  crosswise  and  spiked,  or  by  transverse 
poles  fastened  with  wooden  pins,  withes,  chains,  or  spikes.     (Gen.) 
Bracket  gate.    See  Needle  gate. 
Brail,  v.     To  fasten  logs  in  brails. 
Brail,  n.     A  section  of  a  log  raft,  six  of  which  make  an  average  tow.     (L.  S.) 

Syn.:   block.     (S.  F.) 
Brake  sled.     A  logging  sled  so  constructed  that,  when  the  pole  team  holds 
back,  a  heavy  iron  on  the  side  of  each  runner  of  the  forward  sled  is  forced 
into  the  roadbed.     (N.  F.) 
Brand,  n.     See  Mark. 
Break  in  a  landing,   to.     To  roll  logs    from   the    landing  into  a  stream. 

(R.  M.  F.) 
Break  out,  to.     1.  To  start  a  sled  whose  runners  are  frozen  to  the  ground. 
(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
2.    To  open  a  logging  road  after  heavy  snowfall.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Breastwork  log.     See  Fender  skid. 
Briar,  n.     A  cross-cut  saw.     (Gen.) 

Bridle,  n.  1.  A  device  for  controlhng  the  speed  of  logs  on  a  skid  road.  It 
consists  of  a  short  rope  with  two  hooks  at  one  end,  which  are  driven  into 
the  first  log  of  the  turn;  at  the  other  end  is  a  clamp  which  runs  over  the 
cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.  A  device  for  controlhng  the  speed  of  logging  sleds.     It  is  a  chain 

or  clevis  placed  around  the  forward  end  of  the  rear  sled  runners.     (N.  W.) 

Bridle  man.     One  who  follows  a  turn  of  logs  down  the  skid  road  and  tends 

the  "  bridle."     (P.  C.  F.) 
Broadleaf,  a.     See  Hardwood. 
Brow,  ti.     See  Landing. 

Brow  skid.     1.    The  chief  beam  in  a  frame  to  which  tackle  for  loading  logs  on 
cars  is  fastened  when  a  gin-pole  is  not  used.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  draw  skid,  lead  log. 

2.    A  large  log,  placed  parallel  with  the  railroad  track,  which  forms  the 
front  part  of  a  landing  used  for  loading  logs  upon  cars.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Brush.     See  Slash. 
Brush  a  road,  to.     To  cover  with  brush  the  mudholes  and  swampy  places  in 

a  logging  road,  to  make  it  sohd.     (N.  F.) 
Brusher,  n.     On  an  operation  where  stave  bolts  are  being  made,  one  who 

cuts  and  piles  Umbs  from  felled  trees.     (S.  F.) 
Brush  out,  to.     To  clear  away  the  brush  from  a  survey  line,  gutter  road  or 
other  logging  road.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   bush  out,  to. 


474  APPENDIX 

Brush  snow  fence.  A  snowbreak  to  protect  a  logging  road;  used  most 
commonly  on  wide  marshes.  It  consists  of  brush  which  is  set  upright  in 
the  ground  before  it  freezes.     (N.  F.) 

Brutting  crew.  A  crew  wliich  rolls  logs  down  slopes  too  steep  for  teams. 
(App.) 

Buck,  n.     See  Chore  boy. 

Buck,  V.     1.  To  saw  felled  trees  into  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.  To  bring  or  carry,  as  to  buck  water  or  wood.     (Gen.) 

3.  In  hewing  half-moon  crossties,  the  stick  of  timber  is  hewed  to  a  proper 
size  and  then  "  bucked  "  or  split  into  two  pieces.     (S.  F.) 

Bucker,  n.     1.    One  who  saws  felled  trees  into  logs.     (P.  C.  F.)     Syn.:   cross 

cutter  (P.  C.  F.),  log  maker  (S.  F.). 

2.    One  who  brings  or  carries.     See  Buck. 
Bucking  board.     A  spring  board  used  in  bucking  large  timber.     (P.  C.  F.) 

See  Spring  board. 
Bucking  chute.     A  short  pole  chute  at  a  landing,  in  which  long  logs  are 

bucked  before  loading.     (Cal.) 
Buck  swamper.     See  Iving  swamper. 
Buckwheat,  v.     See  Hang  up,  to. 
Buckwheater,  n.     A  novice  at  lumbering.     (Gen.) 
Buggy,  )i.     See  Trolley. 
Bull  block.     A  large  yarding  block  having  a  throat  of  sufficient  width  to 

allow  a  choker  and  butt  chain  to  pass  through  it.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   butt  chain  block,  jumbo,  lead  block,  Tommy  Moore. 
Bull  bucker.     See  Saw  boss. 
Bull  chain.     A  chain  wrapped  around  the  first  log  of  a  turn  in  order  to  check 

the  speed.     (App.) 
Bull  cook.     See  Chore  boy. 
Bull  donkey.     See  Reader. 

Bull  load.     A  turn  of  logs  ready  for  hauling  with  a  road  engine.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bully,  n.     See  Camp  foreman. 
Bummer,  n.     A  small  truck  with  two  low  wheels  and  a  short  pole,  used  in 

skidding  logs.     (N.  F.,  S.  F.) 

Syn.:   dolly  (L.  S.,  R.  M.  F.),  drag  cart,  self-loading  skidder,  skidder. 
Bunch,  V.     To  skid  logs  together  at  some  convenient  point  for  wagon  or 

cart  hauHng.     (Gen.) 
Bunch  load,  to.     To  encircle  several  logs  with  a  chain  and  load  them  at  once, 

by  steam  or  hor.se  power.     (N.  F.) 
Bunch  logs,  to.     To  collect  logs  in  one  place  for  loading.     (Gen.) 
Bunch  team.     A  team  used  to  bunch  logs.     (Gen.) 
Bunk,  V.     To  place  upon  the  bunks,  as  to  "  bunk  a  log."     (Gen.) 
Bunk,  n.     1.   The  heavy  timber  upon  which  the  logs  rest  on  a  logging  sled. 

(N.  F.) 
Syn.:  bolster. 

2.  The  cross  beam  on  a  log  car  or  truck,  on  which  the  logs  rest.     (Gen.) 

3.  A  log  or  truck.     (S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 

4.  A  logger's  bed  in  a  lumber  camp.     (Gen.) 
Bunk  chain.     See  Toggle  chain. 


TERMS  USED  IN  LOGGING  475 

Bunk  hook.     The  hook  attached  to  the  end  of  the  bunk  on  a  logging  car, 

which  may  be  raised  to  hold  the  logs  in  place  or  lowered  to  release  them. 

(Gen.) 
Bunkhouse,  n.     The  sleeping  quarters  of  a  logging  crew.     (Gen.) 
Bunk  load.     A  load  of  logs  not  over  one  log  deep;    i.e.,  in  which  every  log 

rests  on  the  bunks.     (Gen.) 
Bunk  spikes.     Sharp  spikes  set  upright  in  the  bunks  of  a  logging  sled  to  hold 

the  logs  in  place.     (N.  F.) 
Burton,  n.     In  logging,  a  tackle  composed  of  two  or  more  blocks  which  is 

used  to  increase  the  hauling  power  of  the  puUing  line.     The  log  is  attached 

to  a  block  in  the  bight  of  the  running  part.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bush  a  road,  to.     To  mark  the  route  of  a  logging  road  across  a  marsh  or  the 

ice  by  setting  up  bushes.     (N.  F.) 
Busher,  n.     See  Swamper. 
Bush  monkey.     One  who  piles  tanbark.     (Cal.) 
Bush  out,  to.     See  Brush  out,  to. 

Butt,  n.     The  base  of  a  tree,  or  the  big  end  of  a  log.     (Gen.) 
Butt  chain.     See  Bitch  chain. 
Butt  chain  block.     See  Bull  block. 
Butt  cut.     1.   The  first  log  above  the  stump.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  butt  log.     (Gen.) 
2.    In  gathering  tanbark,  the  section  of  bark  taken  from  the  butt  of  a 

tree  before  felling  it  for  further  peeling.     (N.  F.) 
Butt  hook.     The  hook  by  which  the  cable  is  attached  to  the  tackle  on  the 

logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Butt  line.     See  Bitch  chain. 
Butt  log.     See  Butt  cut. 
Butt  off,  to.     1.    To  cut  a  piece  from  the  end  of  a  log  on  account  of  a  defect. 

(Gen.) 
Syn.:  long  butt,  to.     (P.  C  F.,  App.,  N.  W.) 
2.    To  square  the  end  of  a  log.     (N.  F.) 
Buttress,  n.     A  wall  or  abutment  built  along  a  stream  to  prevent  the  logs  in 

a  drive  from  cutting  the  bank  or  jamming.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   crib.  (App.) 
Butt  team.     See  Wheelers;  Snub-yoke. 
Cableway  skidder.     A  power  skidding  device,  a  distinguishing  feature  of 

which  is  a  main  cable,  suspended  between  a  head  spar  tree  and  a  tail  tree, 

on  which  the  trolley  travels  which  wholly  or  partially  elevates  the  logs  from 

the  ground.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   aerial  skidder,  flying  machine.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Cache,  n.     A  storehouse  for  logging  camp  supplies.     (E.  C.)     See  Head- 
quarters. 
Camboose,  n.     A  fireplace  in  the  center  of  the  early  logging  camps  of  Eastern 

Canada,  which  served  both  for  cooking  and  for  heating  purposes.     (E.  C.) 
Camp  car.     A  flat  car  equipped  with  seats  and  used  to  haul  loggers  back  and 

forth  between  camp  and  the  logging  operation.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   cattle  car,  mulligan  car.     (P.  C.  F.) 


476  APPENDIX 

Camp  foreman.  One  who  has  charge  of  a  logging  camp  and  the  logging  op- 
erations conducted  from  that  camp.     (Gen.) 

Syn  :   bully  (N.  F.),  push  (P.  C.  F.),  twister  (App.),  shanty  boss  (E  C). 

Camp  inspector.     A  lazy  lumberjack,  who  goes  from  one  logging  camp  to 
another,  working  only  a  short  time  in  each.     (N.  F.)     See  Pouch. 
Syn.:  rodeur  (E.  C.) 

Canary,  n.  An  iron  rod  about  6  feet  long  with  a  hook  on  one  end  and  a  handle 
on  the  other.  It  is  used  to  pull  the  binding  (-hain  under  a  bundle  of  logs 
that  are  to  be  loaded  on  logging  wheels.     (L.  S.) 

Cannon  a  log,  to.     In  loading  logs  by  steam  or  horse  power,  to  send  up  a  log 
so  that  it  swings  crosswise,  instead  of  parallel  to  the  load.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   gun  a  log,  to.     (R.  M.  F.) 

Cant  dog.     A  short  handled  peavey.     (Gen.) 

Cant  hook.     A  tool  like  a  peavey,  but  having  a  toe  ring  and  lip  at  the  end  in- 
stead of  a  pike.    See  Peavey.     (Gen.) 

Cap,  n.     A  cone  of  sheet  iron  or  steel,  with  a  hole  in  the  end  through  which  a 
chain  passes,  which  is  fitted  over  the  end  of  a  log  before  snaking  it,  to 
prevent  catching  on  stumps,  roots  or  other  obstacles,  in  steam  skidding. 
(S.  F.) 
Syn.:   Baptist  cone. 

Captain,  n.  A  term  applied  by  negro  workmen  to  the  foreman  of  any  crew. 
(S.  F.)     See  Saw  boss;   Team  bo.ss. 

Catamaran,  n.  A  small  raft  carrying  a  windlass  and  grapple,  used  to  re- 
cover sunken  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   sinker  boat  (Gen.),  gunboat,  monitor,  pontoon  (P.  C.  F.) 

Catch  boom.  A  boom  fastened  across  a  stream  to  catch  and  hold  floating 
logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   trap  boom. 

Catch  mark.     See  Bark  mark. 

Caterpillar,  n.     See  Log  hauler. 

Catface,  n.     A  partly  healed  fire  scar  on  the  stem  of  a  tree.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Catpiece,  n.  A  small  stick  in  which  holes  are  made  at  regular  intervals, 
placed  on  the  top  of  uprights  firmly  set  in  floating  booms.  The  uprights 
are  fitted  to  enter  the  holes  in  the  catpiece,  so  as  to  narrow  or  widen  the 
space  between  the  booms  at  the  entrance  to  a  sluiceway  or  sorting  jack. 
The  catpiece  is  held  by  the  uprights  high  enough  above  water  to  allow 
logs  to  float  freely  under  it.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Cattle  car.     See  Camp  car. 

Cattyman,  n.     An  expert  river  driver.     (N.  F.) 

Center  jam.     A  jam  formed  on  an  obstacle  in  the  middle  of  a  stream,  and 
which  does  not  reach  either  shore.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  stream  jam. 

Chainer,  n.     See  Sled  tender. 

Chain  grapples.     See  Grapples. 

Chain  tender.     See  Sled  tender. 

Chance,  n.  1.  A  term  used  to  define  the  ea.se  or  difficulty  with  which  a 
particular  logging  operation  or  part  of  an  operation  can  be  conducted. 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  477 

A  good  "  chance  "  is  one  where  coinlitions  are  favorable  for  easy  logging. 
(N.  F.) 
Syn.:   show  (P.  C.  F.) 
2.    A  logging  unit.     (Gen.) 
Chaser,  n.     1.    A  member  of  the  hauling  crew  on  a  skidroad  who  accompanies 
the  turn  of  the  logs  to  the  landing,  unhooks  the  grabs,  and  sees  that  they 
are  returned  to  the  yarding  engine.     (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.) 
Syn.:   frogger,  sled  tender  (Cal.),  pigman  (P.  C.  F.) 
2.    A  member  of  the  yarding  crew  who  tends  a  bull  block,  unhooks  the 
choker  at  the  landing,  and  sees  that  it  is  returned  to  the  woods.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   block  tender.     (Cal.) 
Check,  n.     A  longitudinal  crack  in  timber  caused  by  too  rapid  seasoning. 
(Gen.) 
Syn.:   season  check. 
Check  scaler.     One  who  re-scales  logs  in  order  to  detect  errors  on  the  part 

of  a  scaler.     (Gen.) 
Cheese  block.     See  Chock  block. 
Chickadee,  n.     See  Road  monkey. 

Chink,  V.     To  close  the  crevices  between  the  logs  in  a  logging  camp  with 
wood  or  moss.     (N.  W.) 

Syn.:   moss  (N.  F.),  stog  (E.  C).     See  Daub;   Mud. 
Chipper  and  notcher.     The  chief  of  several  saw  crews.     He  notches  the  timber 
and  keeps  a  tally  of  the  number  of  logs  cut  by  each  saw  crew.     (S.  F.) 
Chock  block.     1.    A  small  wedge  or  block  used  to  prevent  a  log  from  rolling. 
(Gen.) 
Syn.:   cheese  block.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.   A  device  used  on  patent  log  car  bunks  to  prevent  logs  from  rolling  off. 
(P.  C.  F.) 
Choker,  n.     A  noose  of  wire  rope  by  which  a  log  is  dragged.     The  rope  is 
from  20  to  50  feet  in  length  and  has  a  choker  hook  on  one  end  and  a  braided 
eye  on  the  other.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Choker-hole  digger.     See  Gopher. 

Choker  hook.     A  hook  fastened  to  one  end  of  a  choker.     The  cable  is  caught 
in  the  hook  when  the  choker  is  adjusted  around  the  log  in  the  form  of  a 
noose.     (Gen.) 
Choker  man.     The  member  of  a  yarding  crew  who  fastens  the  chokers  on  the 

logs.     (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.) 
Chopper,  n.     See  Faller. 
Chopping  board.     .See  Spring  board. 

Chore  boy.     One  who  cleans  the  sleeping  quarters  and  stable  in  a  logging 
camp,  cuts  firewood,  builds  fires  and  carries  water.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  lobby  hog  (App.),  shanty  boss,  swamper  (N.  W.),  buck,  bull  cook, 
flunky,  greaser. 
Chuck  up,  to.     See  Chunk  up,  to. 
Chunk,  v.     To  clear  the  ground,  with  engine  or  horses,  of  obstructions  which 

can  not  be  removed  by  hand.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Chunk  backer.     One  who,  in  advance  of    felling,  bucks  up  merchantable 


478  APPENDIX 

windfalls  and  also  other  down  timber  which  ina\-  interfere  with  yarding. 

(P.  C.  F.) 
Chunk  up,  to.     1.    To  collect  and  pile  for  burning  the  slash  left  after  logging. 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
2.    In  burning  brush,  to  throw  upon  the  fire  the  unburned  pieces  around 

the  edge  of  the  pile.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   chuck  up.  to. 
Chum  butted.    See  Swell  butted. 
Chute,  n.     A  trough  built  of  round  timbers  in  which  logs  are  transported  up 

or  down  a  grade,  either  by  animal  power  or  by  gravity.     (E.  C,  P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   slide,  flume. 
Chute  boat.     See  Rigging  sled. 
Chute  grease.     A  heavy  oil  applied  to  .skids  to  lessen  the  frictional  resistance 

of  logs  dragged  over  them.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  skid  grease. 
Chute  greaser.     See  Greaser. 
Cinch  line.     See  Swifter. 

Coal  off,  to.     To  cut  a  forest  clean  for  charcoal  wood.     (N.  F.) 
Coffee  mill.     See  corkscrew. 
Commissary,  n.     A  general  store  for  supplying  lumbermen.     (App.,  S.  F.) 

See  Van. 
Conk,  n.     1.   The  decay  in  the  wood  of  trees  caused  by  a  fungus.     (N.  F., 

P.  C.  F.) 

2.    The  visible  fruiting  organ  of  a  tree  fungus.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Conky,  a.     Affected  by  conk.     (N.  F  ,  P.  C.  F.) 
Connected  truck.     See  Skeleton  log  car. 
Contramarque.     See  Bark  mark. 
Cook  camp.     The  building  used  as  kitchen  and  dining  room  in  a  logging 

camp.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :   cook  house,  cook  shanty. 
Cookee,  n.     A  cook's  helper  and  a  dishwasher  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen.) 

See  Flunky. 
Cook  house.     See  Cook  camp. 
Cook  shanty.     See  Cook  camp. 
Corduroy,  v.     To  build  a  corduroy  road.     (Gen.) 
Corduroy  road.     A  roadway  having  logs  laid  side  by  side  across  it,  as  in  marshy 

places.     (Gen.) 
Corkscrew,  n.     A  geared  logging  locomotive.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Syn.:   coffee  mill  (N.  W.),  stem  winder,  thousand  legs  (App.). 
Corner,  v.     In  felling  timber,  to  cut  through  the  sapwood  on  all  sides  to  pre- 
vent the  latter  from  splitting.     (App.) 
Corner  binds.     Four  stout  chains,  used  on  logging  sleds,  to  bind  the  two 

outside  logs  of  the  lower  tier  to  the  bunks,  and  thus  give  a  firm  bottom 

to  the  load.     (N.  F.) 
Comer  man.     In  building  a  camp  or  barn  of  logs,  one  who  notches  the  logs 

so  that  (hoy  will  fit  closely  and  make  a  square  corner.     (N.  F.) 
Coupling  grab.     See  Grapi)lcs. 
Cover  up  logs,  to.     To  fell  trees  on  top  of  those  already  cut.     (N.  F.) 


TERMS  USED  IN  LOGGING  479 

Crab,  n.     See  Headworks. 

Cradle,  n.     A  framework  of  timbers  in  which  ocean-going  log  rafts  are  built. 

(P.  C.  F.) 
Cradle  knolls.     1.    Small  knolls  which  require  grading  in  the  construction  of 

logging  roads.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

2.    Small  knolls  which  must  be  avoided  in  pointing  a  tree  for  felling. 

(P.  C.  F.) 
Crazy  chain.     The  short  chain  used  to  hold  up  that  tongue  of  a  sprinkler 

sled  which  is  not  in  use.     (N.  F.) 
Crazy  dray.     See  Go-devil. 
Creek.     See  Float  road. 
Crib,  n.     1.   Specifically,  a  raft  of  logs;    loosely  applied  to  a  boom  of  logs. 

(N.  F.) 

2.  See  Buttress. 

3.  One  of  the  supports  under  a  logging  bridge,  flume,  or  railroad  built  of 
round  logs  laid  crib  fashion.     (Gen.) 

Crib  dam.     A  dam  built  with  cribs  of  logs,  filled  with  stones,  and  planked 

on  the  up-stream  face.     (Gen.) 
Crib  logs,  to.     To  surround  floating  logs  with  a  boom  and  draw  them  by  a 
windlass  on  a  raft  (a  crab),  or  to  tow  them  w^th  a  steamboat.     (N.  W., 
L.  S.) 
Cross  chains.     Chains  connecting  the  front  and  rear  sleds  of  a  logging  sled. 
(N.  F.) 
Syn.:  lead  chains,  tag  chains  (N.  W.). 
Cross-cut  saw.     A  saw  which  cuts  the  wood  fibres  on  the  cross  section.     (Gen.) 
Cross  cutter.     See  Bucker. 

Crosshaul.     The  cleared    space  in   which  a  team  moves  in   crosshauling. 
(N.  F.) 
2.   See  Crotch  chain. 
Crosshaul,  to.     To  load  cars  or  sleds  with  logs  by  horse  power  and  crotch 

or  loading  chain.     (Gen.) 
Crotch,  V.     To  cut  notches  on  opposite  sides  of  a  log  near  the  end,  into  which 

dogs  are  fastened.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Crotch,  n.     See  Go-devil. 

Crotch  chain.     A  tackle  for  loading  logs  on  .sleds,  wagons,  cars,  or  skidways 
by  crosshauling.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   crosshaul  (S.  F.),  parbuckle  (N.  W.). 
See  Loading  chain. 
Crotch  tongue.     Two  pieces  of  wood,  in  the  form  of  a  V,  joining  the  front 

and  rear  sleds  of  a  logging  sled.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Cruise,  v.     To  estimate  the  amount  and  value  of  standing  timber.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  estimate,  value. 
Cruiser,  n.     One  who  cruises.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   estimator,  land  looker,  valuer. 
Cull,  n.     1.   Logs  which  are  rejected,  or  parts  of  logs  deducted  in  measure- 
ment on  account  of  defects.     (Gen.) 
2.   A  crosstie  which  does  not  meet  specifications.     (Gen.) 
Cull,  V.    See  Scale. 


480  APPENDIX 

Culler,  n.    See  Scaler. 

Cut,  n.     A  season's  output  of  logs.     (Gen.) 

Cut  a  log,  to.     To  move  one  end  of  a  log  forward  or  backward,  so  that  the 

log  will  roll  in  the  desired  direction.     (Gen.) 
Cutaway  dam.     See  Splash  dam. 
Cut-off.     An  artificial  channel  by  which  the  course  of  a  stream  is  straightened 

to  faciUtate  log  driving.     (N.  F.) 
Cutter,  n.     See  Faller. 
Daub,  V.    See  Mud. 
Deacon  seat.     The  bench  in  front  of  the  sleeping  bunks  in  a  logging  camp. 

(N.  F.) 
Syn. :   dog  seat. 
Dead  and  down.     Dead  timber  which  is  either  standing  or  down.     (Gen.) 
Deadener,  n.     A  heavA^  log  or  timber,  ■nnth  spikes  set  in  the  butt  end,  so 

fastened  in  a  log  slide  that  the  logs  passing  under  it  come  in  contact  with 

the  spikes  and  have  their  speed  retarded.     (Gen.) 
Deadhead,  n.     A  sunken  or  partly  sunken  log.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   sinker  (Gen.),  bobber  (N.  F.),  jil-poke  (N.  W.) 
Deadman,  n.     1.   A  fallen  tree  on  the  shore,  or  a  timber  to  which  the  hawser 

of  a  boom  is  attached.     (X.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 

2.  A  log  buried  in  the  ground  to  which  a  guy  line  or  an  anchor  line  is 
attached.     (Gen.) 

3.  See  Widow  maker. 
Deadwater.     See  Stillwater. 

Decker.     One  who  rolls  logs  upon  a  skidway  or  log  deck.     (Gen.) 

Decking  chain.     See  Loading  chain. 

Decking  hook.     A  light  peavey  used  by  a  top  loader.     (App.) 

Deck  up,  to.     To  pile  logs  upon  a  skidway.     (Gen.) 

Deer  foot.     A  V-shaped  iron  catch  on  the  side  of  a  logging  car,  in  which  the 

binding  chain  is  fastened.     (Gen.) 
Dehorn,  v.     To  saw  off  the  ends  of  logs  bearing  the  o\\Tier's  mark  and  put  on 

a  new  mark.     (Kentucky.) 
Depot,  n.     The  headquarters  of  a  logging  operation.     (E.  C.) 
Depot  camp.     A  logging  camp  comprising  several  buildings  which  are  to  be 

used  for  more  than  one  year.     (E.  C.) 
Dhobie  tongs.     Skidding  tongs  used  ^-ith  bummers.     (S.  F.) 
Dingle,  n.     The  roofed-over  space  between  the  kitchen  and  the  sleeping 

quarters  in  a  logging  camp,  commonly  used  as  a  .store-room.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Syn.:   aUey  (N.  W.) 
Dinkey,  n.     A  small  logging  locomotive.     (App.,  S.  F.) 
Dog,  n.     A  short,  heavy  piece  of  steel,  bent  and  pointed  at  one  end  with  an 

eye  or  ring  at  the  other.     It  is  used  for  many  purpo.ses  in  logging,  and  is 

sometimes  so  shaped  that  a  blow  directly  against  the  line  of  draft  will 

loosen  it.     (Gen.) 
See  Rafting  dog. 
Syn.:  tail  hook.     fP.  C.  F.) 
Dog  boat.     See  Rigging  sled. 


TERMS  USED  IN  LOGGING  481 

Dogger,  n.  One  who  attaches  the  dogs  or  hooks  to  a  log  before  it  is  power 
skidded.     (S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 

Dog  hook.     1.    The  hook  on  the  end  of  a  dogwarp.     (N.  F.) 

2.  In  yarding  with  a  hne  horse,  a  liook  on  the  end  of  a  haul-up  chain  of 
a  size  to  permit  its  being  hooked  into  a  link  of  the  chain  when  the  latter  is 
looped  around  a  log  or  other  object.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Dog  room.     The  lounging  room  in  a  logging  camp.     (N.  W.) 

Dogs,  n.     See  Skidding  tongs. 

Dog  seat.     See  Deacon  seat. 

Dogwarp,  n.  A  rope  with  a  strong  hook  on  the  end  which  is  used  in  break- 
ing dangerous  jams  on  falls  and  rapids  and  in  moving  logs  from  other  diffi- 
cult positions.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:    hand  dog  (N.  F.),  hand  grab  (E.  C). 

Dog  wedge.  An  iron  wedge  with  a  ring  in  the  butt,  which  is  driven  into  the 
end  of  a  log  and  a  chain  hitched  in  the  ring  for  skidding  the  log  by  horse 
power;  also  used  in  gathering  up  logs  on  a  drive  by  running  a  rope  through 
the  rings  and  puUing  a  number  of  logs  at  a  time  through  marshes  or  par- 
tially submerged  meadows  to  the  channel.     (N.  F.) 

Dolbeer.     See  Spool  donkey. 

Dolly,  n.     See  Fairleader;   Load  roller;   Bummer. 

Dolphin,  n.     A  cluster  of  piles  to  which  a  boom  is  secured.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Donkey,  n.  A  portable  steam  engine,  equipped  with  drums  and  cable,  used 
in  steam  logging.  See  Half-breed;  Roader;  Spool  donkey;  Yarding  don- 
key.    (P.  C.  F.) 

Donkey  doctor.  In  a  logging  camp,  one  who  repairs  donkey  engines.  (P. 
C.  F.) 

Donkey  logging.  Yarding  on  the  ground  with  a  donkey  engine,  as  contrasted 
with  animal  logging,  or  other  power  logging  methods.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Donkey  sled.  The  heavy  sled-like  frame  upon  which  a  donkey  engine  is 
mounted.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Dote,  n.  The  general  term  used  by  lumbermen  to  denote  decay  or  rot  in 
timber.     (Gen.) 

Doty,  a.     Decayed.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   dozy. 

Double  couplers.     Two  couphng  grabs  joined  by  a  short  cable,   used  for 
fastening  logs  together.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   four  paws. 

Double  dray.     See  Jumbo. 

Double  header.  A  place  from  which  it  is  possible  to  haul  a  full  load  of  logs 
to  the  landing,  and  where  partial  loads  are  topped  out  or  finished  to  the 
full  hauling  capacity  of  teams.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Down-hill  clevis.  A  brake  on  a  logging  sled,  consisting  of  a  clevis  encircling 
the  runner,  to  the  bottom  of  which  a  heavy  square  piece  of  iron  is  welded. 
(N.  F.) 

Dozy,  a.     See  Doty. 

Drag  cart.     See  Bummer. 

Drag  in,  to.     See  Dray  in,  to. 


482  APPENDIX 

Drag  road.     1.    A  road  over  which  skidding  teams  return  to  the  woods  after 

having  delivered  their  load  at  the  landing.     (R.  M.  F.)     See  Dray  road; 

Gutter  road. 
Drag  sled.     See  Dray. 
Draw  hook.     See  Gooseneck. 
Draw  skid.     See  Brow  skid. 
Dray,  n.     A  single  sled  used  in  dragging  logs.     One  end  of  the  log  rests  upon 

the  sled.     (N.  F.) 

Syn. :   drag  sled,  hzard,  scoot,  skidding  sled,  yarding  sled. 
Dray  dog,  to.     To  seize  the  rear  end  of  a  ranking  jumper  with  a  peavey  and 

turn  it  around. 
Dray  in,  to.     To  drag  logs  from  the  place  where  they  are  cut  directly  to  the 

skidway  or  landing.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   drag  in,  to. 
Dray  road.     A  narrow  road,  cut  wide  enough  to  allow  the  passage  of  a  team 

and  dray.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :   drag  road. 
Drive,  v.     To  float  logs  or  timbers  from  the  forest  to  the  mill  or  shipping 

point.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :   float. 
Drive,  n.     LA  body  of  logs  or  timbers  in  process  of  being  floated  from  the 

forest  to  the  mill  or  shipping  point.     (Gen.) 

2.    That  part  of  logging  which  consists  in  floating  logs  or  timbers.     (Gen.) 
Driving  road.     See  Float  road. 
Drum  logs,  to.     To  haul  logs  by  drum  and  cable  out  of  a  hollow  or  cove. 

(App.) 
Dry-ki,  n.     Trees  killed  by  flooding.     (N.  F.) 
Dry  pick,  to.     As  applied  to  a  jam,  to  remove  logs  singly  while  the  water  is 

cut  off-.     (N.  F.) 
Dry  roll,  to.     In  sacking  the  rear,  to  roll  stranded  logs  into  the  bed  of  the 

stream  from  which  the  water  has  been  cut  off  preparatory  to  flooding. 

(N.  F.) 
Dry  rot.     Decay  in  timber  without  apparent  moisture.     (Gen.) 
Dry  slide.     See  Slide. 
Dry  sloop,  to.     To  sloop  logs  on  bare  ground  when  the  slope  is  so  steep  that 

it  would  be  dangerous  to  sloop  on  snow.     (N.  F.) 
Dudler,  n.     See  Dudley. 
Dudley,  n.     An  engine  for  hauling  logs,  which  propels  itself  and  drags  its 

load  by  revolving  a  large  spool  around  which  are  several  turns  of  a  cable 

fixed  at  each  end  of  the  track.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   dudler. 
Duffle,  n.     The  personal  belongings  of  a  woodsman  or  lumberjack  which  he 

takes  into  the  woods.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  dunnage.     (N.  W.) 
Duffle  bag.     A  canvas  sack  used  to  carry  the  clothing  and  personal  belongings 

of  wood  workers. 
Syn. :   dunnage  bag. 
See  Turkey 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  483 

Dump  hook.  A  levered  chain  grab  hook  attached  to  the  evener  to  which  a 
team  is  hitched  in  loading  logs.  A  movement  of  the  lever  releases  the 
hook  from  the  logging  chain  without  stopping  the  team.     (N.  F.) 

Dump  logs,  to.  To  roll  logs  over  a  bluff,  or  from  a  logging  car  or  sled  into 
the  water.     (Gen.) 

Dunnage,  n.     1.   Sawmill  refuse,  used  to  ballast  logging  railroad  spurs  in  a 
cypress  swamp.     (S.  F.) 
Syn. :   dust. 
2.   See  Duffle. 

Dunnage  bag.     See  Duffle  bag. 

Dust,  n.     See  Dunnage. 

Dust  a  dam,  to.  To  fill  with  earth  or  gravel  the  cracks  or  small  holes 
between  planks  in  the  gate  of  a  splash  dam.     (N.  W.) 

Duster,  n.     A  dead  standing  yellow-pine  tree  with  a  sound  heart.     (S.  F.) 

Dutchman,  n.  A  short  stick  placed  transversely  between  the  outer  logs  of 
a  load  to  divert  the  load  toward  the  middle  and  so  keep  any  logs  from 
falUng  off.     (N.  F.) 

Earth  slide.  A  furrow  in  the  earth  in  which  logs  are  dragged.  This  is  some- 
times iced  in  winter  to  facihtate  skidding.     (App.)     See  Gutter  road. 

End  mark.     See  Mark. 

Estimate,  v.     See  Cruise. 

Estimator,  n.     See  Cruiser. 

Face  log.     See  Head  log. 

Fairleader.     A  device  consisting  of  four  rollers  or  sheave  wheels  arranged  in 
pairs,  the  axes  of  each  pair  being  at  right  angles  to  each  other.     It  is  placed 
on  a  support  on  the  front  end  of  a  donkey  sled  and  gives  the  cable  a  straight 
lead  onto  the  drum.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   dolly.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Faller,  n.     One  who  fells  trees.     (Gen.)     See  Head  faller;    Second  faller. 
Syn.:   chopper  (App.),  sa\vyer  (Gen.),  cutter,  flathead  (S.  F.) 

Falling  ax.  .An  ax  with  a  long  helve  and  a  long,  narrow  bit,  designed  espe- 
cially for  felling  trees.     (Gen.) 

Falling  crew.     A  crew  of  two  or  three  fallers.     (Cal.) 
Syn.:  falUng  set,  pair  of  fallers  (P.  C.  F.) 

Falling  irons.     See  Fafling  plates. 

Falling  plates.     Thin,  wide  plates  of  iron  which  are  placed  above  and  below 
falhng  wedges  when  the  wood  is  so  soft  that  the  wedges  cut  into  it.    (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :   falling  irons. 

Falling  set.     See  Falling  crew. 

Falling  wedge.  A  wedge  used  to  throw  a  tree  in  the  desired  direction,  by 
driving  it  into  the  saw  kerf.     (Gen.) 

Fantail,  v.  To  lay  out  radial  runs  for  pullboat  logging,  each  main  run  having 
one  or  more  branches.     (S.  F.) 

Fatwood.     See  Lightwood. 

Feeder,  n.     See  Barn  boss. 

Fence  boom.  A  patent  log-towing  boom  used  at  one  time  on  the  Great  Lakes. 
(E.  C.) 

Fender  boom.     See  Sheer  boom. 


484  APPENDIX 

Fender  skid.     A  skid  placed  on  the  lower  side  of  a  skidding  trail  on  a  slope 
to  hokl  tlie  log  on  the  trail  while  being  skidded.     (Gen.) 
8yn.:   breastwork  log,  glancer,  sheer  skid. 
Fiddle  butts.     Large  spruce  butt  logs  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  musical 

instruments.      (N.  W.) 
Fid  hook.     A  slender,  flat  hook  used  to  keep  another  hook  from  sHpping  on  a 

chain.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
File  a  saw,  to.     See  Fit  a  saw,  to. 
Filer,  n.     One  who  files  the  cross-cut  saws  in  the  woods.     (Gen.) 

Sj^n. :   saw  fitter. 
Fin  boom.     A  form  of  boom  used  on  navigable  streams  (where  permanent 
booms  are  not  allowed)  to  direct  logs  from  one  side  of  the  stream  to  the 
other.     By  changing  the  angle  between  the  fins  attached  on  the  down- 
stream face  of  the  boom  and  the  boom  itself  the  latter  may  be  thrown 
across  the  stream  at  any  angle  less  than  90  degrees.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   rudder  boom.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Firm  red  heart.     Firm  heartwood  which  has  a  reddish  color  due  to  decayed 
wood  adjacent  to  it.     It  is  an  incipient  stage  of  red  rot.     (S.  F.) 
Syn.:   red  heart. 
Fish  plate.     A  narrow  bar  of  steel  having  from  four  to  six  holes  through  which 
bolts  may  be  inserted.     Two  fish  plates  are  used  to  join  steel  rails  at  the 
joints,  one  plate  being  placed  against  each  side  of  the  web  and  both  bolted 
to  it.     (Gen.) 
Fit,  V.     1.    To  notch  a  tree  for  falling  and  after  it  is  felled  to  mark  it  into 
the  log  lengths  into  which  it  is  to  be  cut.     (N.  F.) 
2.    To  ring,  spUt,  and  peel  tanbark.     (N.  F.) 
Fit  a  saw,  to.     To  put  it  into  proper  condition  for  sawing.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   file  a  saw,  to. 
Fitter,  n.     1.    One  who  notches  the  tree  for  felling  and  after  it  is  felled  marks 
the  log  lengths  into  which  it  is  to  be  cut.     (N.  F.) 

2.    One  who  cuts  hmbs  from  felled  trees  and  rings  and  sUts  the  bark  pre- 
paratory to  peeling  tanbark.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :   preparer. 
Flagman,  n.     One  who  transmits  orders  from  the  tong  hooker  to  the  steam 

skidder  leverman.     (S.  F.) 
Flathead.     See  Faller. 
Float,  V.     See  Drive. 

Float  road.     A  channel  cleared  in  a  swamp  and  used  to  float  cypress  logs  from 
the  woods  to  the  boom  at  the  river  or  mill.     (S.  F.) 
Syn. :   creek,  driving  road. 
Flood,  V.     See  Splash. 
Flood  dam.     See  Splash  dam. 
Flume,  V.     To  transport  logs  or  timbers  by  a  flume.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  .sluice. 
Flume,  n.     A  trough  in  which  water  runs,  used  in  transporting  logs,  lumber 
or  timbers.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   chute  (E.  C),  sluice,  water  slide,  wet  slide. 


TERMS  USED   IN   LOGGING  485 

Flunkey,  n.     1.    An  assistant  to  the  cook  in  a  logging  camp.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.   See  Cookee;  Chore  boy. 
Flying  drive.     A  drive  the  main  portion  of  which  is  put  through  with  the 

utmost  dispatch,  without  stopping  to  pick  rear.     (N.  F.) 
Flying  machine.     Sec  Cableway  skidder. 
Fly  road.     See  Tote  road. 
Flying  machine.     See  Cableway  skidder. 
Fly  rollway.     A  skidway  or  landing  on  a  steoj)  slope,  from  which  the  logs  are 

released  at  once  by  removing  the  brace  wliich  holds  them.     (N.  F.) 
Fore-and-aft  road.     A  skid  road  made  of  logs  placed  parallel  to  its  direction, 

making  the  road  resemble  a  chute.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   pole  chute,  stringer  road. 
Four  paws.     See  Double  couplers. 
Free,  n.     1.    A  steel  blade,  6  or  7  inches  long,  with  a  wooden  handle  at  right 

angles  to  the  blade.     It  is  used  to  rive  shakes  and  split  staves  from  bolts. 

(Gen.) 

2.  An  iron  wedge  used  in  splitting  logs.     (Gen.) 

3.  A  contemptuous  term  applied  to  a  dull  a.x.     (App.) 

Frog,  11.     1.    The  junction  of  two  branches  of  a  flume.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.  The  junction  of  two  branches  of  a  chute;    also  any  place  where  an 
opening  is  made  in  a  chute  to  permit  the  yarding  of  logs  into  it.     (Cal.) 

3.  A  timber  placed  at  the  mouth  of  a  slide  to  direct  the  discharge  of  the 
logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :   throw  out. 
Frogger,  n.     See  Sled  tender. 
Frog  shoveler.     A  member  of  a  chute  crew  or  a  yarding  crew  who  cleans  out 

dirt  and  bark  at  frogs.     (Cal.) 
Front,  n.     The  point  at  which  logging  on  a  particular  operation  is  being 

conducted.     (Texas.) 
Full  scale.     Measurement  of  logs,  in  which  no  reduction  is  made  for  defects. 

(Gen.) 
Syn.:   bigness  scale.     (N.  F.) 
Gaff,  n.     The  steel  point  of  a  pike  pole,  consisting  of  a  screw  point  and    a 

spur.     (Gen.) 
Gangway,  n.     The  inclined  plane  up  wliich  logs  are  moved  from  the  water 

into  a  sawTTiill.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  jack  ladder,  log  jack,  log  way,  slip. 
Gap  stick.     The  pole  placed  across  the  entrance  of  a  sorting  jack  to  close  it, 

when  not  in  use.     (Gen.) 
Gee  throw.     A  heavy,  wooden  lever,  with  a  curved  iron  point,  used  to  break 

out  logging  sleds.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   starting  bar. 
Gill-poke.     A  swinging-arm  type  of  log  car  unloader.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Gin  pole.     A  pole  secured  by  guy  ropes,  to  the  top  of  which  tackle  for  loading 

logs  is  fastened.     (Gen.) 
Glancer,  n.     See  Fender  skid. 
Glancing  boom.     See  Sheer  boona. 


486  APPENDIX 

Glisse  skids.     FreslJy  peeled  skids  up  which  log8  are  shd  instead  of  rolled 
when  being  loaded.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  shp  skids. 
Glut,  n.     A  wooden  wedge  used  in  tie  making.     (S.  F.) 

Go-back  road.     A  road  upon  wliich  empty  logging  sleds  can  return  to  the 
skidways  for  reloading,  \vithout  meeting  the  loaded  sleds  en  route  to  the 
landing.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  short  road. 
Go-devil,     A  small  sled,  without  a  tongue,  often  made  from  the  natural  fork 
of  a  tree  and  used  as  an  aid  in  skidding  logs  on  stony  or  bare  ground. 
(L.  S.,  N.  F.) 
Syn.:   alUgator,  crazy  dray  (S.  F.),  crotch,  travois  (L.  S.,  N.  F.) 
Gooseneck,  n.     1.   A  wooden  bar  used  to  couple  two  logging  trucks.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   rooster  (P.  C.  F.) 

2.  The  point  of  draft  on  a  logging  sled;  it  consists  of  a  curved  iron  hook 
bolted  to  the  roll.     (N.  F.) 

Syn. :   draw  hook. 

3.  A  V-shaped  pair  of  tliiUs  joining  the  forward  and  rear  sets  of  runners 
of  a  logging  .sled.     (N.  W.) 

4.  A  curved  iron  driven  into  the  bottom  of  a  shde  to  check  the  speed  of 
descending  logs.     (App.,  R.  M.  F.) 

Syn.:  scotch,  sprag.     (App.) 

5.  See  Yoke. 

Goosepen.     A  large  hole  burned  in  a  standing  tree.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Gopher,  n.     1.    One  who  makes  a  hole  under  a  load  of  logs  so  that  the  chains 
on  a  pair  of  logging  wheels  can  be  placed  around  it.     (Cal.) 

2.    In  power  logging,  one  who  digs  holes  under  the  log  so  that  a  choker 
can  be  adjusted  on  it.     (Cal.) 

Syn.:   choker-hole  digger,  swamper. 
Grab-driver.     One  who  attaches  coupling  grabs  to  a  turn  of  logs.     (App.) 
Grab  hook.     A  hook  having  a  narrow  tlu-oat,  adapted  to  grasp  any  link  of 

a  chain.     (Gen.) 
Grab  link.     See  Slip  grab. 
Grabs,  n.     See  Skidding  tongs. 
Grab  setter.     One  who  attaches  the  grabs  when  logs  are  transported  on 

logging  wheels.     (S.  F.) 
Grab  skipper.     A  short  iron  pry  or  hammer,  used  to  remove  the  skidding 

tongs  from  a  log.     (App.,  S.  F.) 
Grapples,  n.     1.    Two  small  iron  dogs  joined  by  a  short  chain,  and  used  to 
couple  logs  end  to  end  when  skidding  on  mountains,  so  that  several  logs 
may  be  skidded  by  one  horse  at  the  same  time.     (N.  F.) 

Sj^n.:  chain  grapples,  couphng  grab  (P.  C.  F.),  trail  dog  (R.  M.  F.). 
2.   See  Skidding  tongs. 
Grass  line.     See  Straw  hne. 
Gravel  a  dam,  to.     To  cover  with  gravel  or  earth  the  upstream  side  of  the 

timber  work  of  a  dam,  to  make  it  water  tight.     (N.  F.) 
Greaser,  n.     1.    One  who  applies  skid  grease  to  a  chute.     (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.) 
Syn. :  chute  greaser,  skid  greaser. 
2.  See  Chore  boy. 


TERMS  U^SED   IN  LOGGING  487 

Grips,  n.     See  Skidding  tongs. 
Groiind  hog.     See  Ground  skidder. 

Ground  loader.     That  member  of  a  loading  crew  who  attaches  the  tongs  or 
loading  hooks  to  the  log,  or  who  guides  the  logs  up  the  skids.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   bottom  loader,  hooker,  hooker-on,  send-up  man  (Gen.),  hookman, 
tong  puller  (S.  F.),  tong  hooker  (App.),  sender  (E.  C.). 
Ground  skidder.     A  power  skidder  which  skids  logs  on  the  ground.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   groundhog.     (App.). 

Grouser,  n.     A  large  and  long  stick  of  squared  timber  sharpened  at  the  lower 

end  and  placed  in  the  bow  of  a  steam  logging  boat;    it  takes  the  place  of 

an  anchor  in  shallow  water,  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  steam  power. 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Guard  a  hill,  to.     To  keep  a  logging  road  on  a  steep  dechne  in  condition  for 

use.     (N.  F.) 
Gun,  V.     1.   To  aim  a  tree  in  felling  it.     In  case  of  very  large,  brittle  trees, 
such  as  redwood,  a  sighting  device  is  used.     (Cal.) 
Syn.:  point,  swing. 
2.   See  Cannon  a  log,  to. 
Gun,  n.     A  device  which  is  inserted  into  an  undercut  to  determine  the  di- 
rection of  fall  of  the  tree.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Syn. :   gimning  stick,  shot-gun,  timber  compass. 
Gun  a  log,  to.     See  Cannon  a  log,  to. 
Gun  boat.     -See  Catamaran. 
Gunning  stick.     See  Gun. 
Gutterman.     See  Swamper. 
Gutter  road.     The  path  followed  in  skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:    drag  road,  earth  slide,  runway,  skidding  trail,  snaking  trail. 
Guy  line.     1.    Lines  used  to  hold  raft  timbers  together.     (N.  W.) 

2.    Lines  which  support  a  gin-pole,  or  spar  and  tail  trees.     (Gen.) 
Gypo,  n.     A  logging  crew  usually  of  from  four  to  eight  men  who  work  on  a 

contract  basis.     (R.  M.  F.) 
Gypsy  yarder.     See  Spool  donkey. 

Hack,  V.  To  hew.  Usually  appUed  only  to  the  hewing  of  crossties.  (Gen.) 
Half-breed,  n.  A  donkey  engine  designed  for  long  distance  yarding  or  for 
use  as  a  roader  on  short  distance  hauling.  (P.  C.  F.)  See  Yarding  donkey. 
Syn. :  donkey. 
Half-moon  tie.  A  tie  made  from  a  stick  of  timber  yielding  two  ties.  (S.  F.) 
Hand-bag.     See  Hand-bank. 

Hand-bank,  v.     To  haul  to  the  banking  ground,  with  hand  sleds,  ties  or  other 
timbers  that  are  to  be  floated.     (R.  M.  F.) 
Syn.:   hand-bag. 
Hand-banker.     One  who  hauls  ties  on  a  hand  sled  from  the  stump  to  the 

landing.     (R.  M.  F.) 
Handbarrow.     Two  strong,  hght  poles  held  in  position  by  rungs,  upon  which 
bark  or  wood  is  carried  by  two  men.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Syn  :   ranking  bar. 
Hand  dog.     See  Dogwarp. 
Hand  grab.     See  Dogwarp. 


488  APPENDIX 

Hand  log,  to.     To  move  timber  without  the  aid  of  animal  or  mechanical  draft. 

(Gen.j 
Hand  logger.     Formerly  one  who  logged  without  the  use  of  animals  or  power. 

Tlie  term  is  now  sometimes  applied  to  loggers  in  the  Northwest  who  use 

animals  instead  of  power  skidders.     (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.,  S.  F.). 
Hand  pike.     A  piked  lever,  usually  from  6  to  8  feet  long,  for  handhng  floating 

logs.     (Gen.) 

Sjm.:   pike  lever.     (N.  W.) 
Hand  skid,  to.     To  move  timber  by  hand  to  a  point  where  it  can  be  reached 

l)y  horse  or  any  other  form  of  transport.     (R.  M.  F.) 
Hand  skidder.     One  who  accompanies  a  log  as  it  is  being  dragged  and  places 

sliort  skids  beneath  it.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Hand  sluice,  to.     To  shoot  logs  down  steep  slopes  on  a  crude  shde  made  by 

felling  timber  down  the  slope,  cutting  off  the  tops  and  arranging  the  boles 

so  that  a  rough  trough  results.      Snow  greatly  facilitates  hand  sluicing. 

(E.  C.) 
Hang  an  ax,  to,  v.     To  fit  a  handle  to  an  a.x.     (Gen.) 
Hang  the  boom,  to.     To  put  the  boom  in  place.     (Gen.) 
Hang  up,  to.     1.    To  fell  a  tree  so  that  it  catches  against  another  instead  of 

faUing  to  the  ground.     (Gen.) 

Sj'n.:   lodge  (Gen.),  buckwheat  (App.) 

2.  In  hauhng  with  a  team,  to  get  the  load  stuck  either  in  the  mud  or 
behind  a  stump. 

3.  As  applied  to  river  driving,  to  discontinue;    thus  a  drive  may  be 
"  hung  up  "  for  lack  of  water  or  for  some  other  reason. 

Hardwood,  a.     As  appUed  to  trees  and  logs,  broadleaved,  belonging  to  the 
dicotyledons      (Gen.) 
Syn.:   broadleaf. 

Hardwood,  n.     A  broadleaved,  or  dicotyledonous,  tree.     (Gen.) 

Haul,  V.  As  applied  to  a  skidway  of  logs  that  is  being  broken  into,  to  shp 
or  sUde.     (N.  W.) 

Haul,  n.  In  logging,  the  distance  and  route  over  which  teams  must  go 
between  two  given  points,  as  between  the  yard  or  skidway  and  the  land- 
ing.    (Gen.) 

Haul  back.  A  small  wire  rope,  traveling  between  the  power  skidder  and  a 
pulley  set  near  the  logs  to  be  dragged,  used  to  return  the  main  cable  with 
tongs,  chokers,  or  hooks  to  the  next  log.     (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.,  S.  F.) 

Haul  back.     A  small  wire  rope,  traveling  between  the  donkey  engine  and  a 
pulley  set  near  the  logs  to  be  dragged,  used  to  return  the  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   back  line,  pull  back,  trip  Une. 

Haul  back  block.     The  block  used  on  the  haul  back  Hne.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Haul  up.  A  light  chain  and  hook  by  which  a  horse  may  be  hitched  to  a 
cable  in  order  to  move  it  where  desired.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Hay  road.     See  Tote  road. 

Hay  wire  outfit.     A  contemi)tuous  term  for  poor  logging  equipment.     (N.  F.) 

Head  block.  The  log  placed  under  the  front  end  of  the  skids  in  a  skidway 
to  raise  them  to  the  desired  height.     (N.  F.) 

Head  bucker.     See  Saw  boss. 

Head  chopper.     The  foreman  of  a  yarding  crew.     (N.  W.) 


TERMS  USED   IN   LOGGING  489 

Head  driver.     An  expert  river  driver  who,  during  the  drive,  is  stationed  at 
a  point  where  a  jam  is  feared.     Head  drivers  usually  work  in  pairs.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:    log  watch  (N.  F.),  jam  c-racker  (P.  C.  F.) 

Head  fallen  The  chief  of  a  crew  of  fallers.  (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.)  See 
Second  faller. 

Head  grabs.  The  grabs,  on  the  first  log  of  a  turn,  to  which  the  draft  power  is 
attached.     (App.)     See  Skidding  tongs. 

Head  hooker.     The  cliief  of  a  puUboat  skidding  crew.     (S.  F.) 

Head  loader.  When  two  men  are  engaged  in  loading  logs  on  trucks  or  cars, 
one  is  termed  head  loader  and  the  other  second  loader.  (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.) 
See  Top  loader. 

Head  log.     1.   The  front  bottom  log  on  a  skidway.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  face  log. 

2.    The  front  log  in  a  turn.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   lead  log. 

Head  push.     .See  Straw  bo.ss. 

Headquarters,  n.  In  logging,  the  distributing  point  for  supplies,  equipment 
and  mail;    not  usually  the  executive  or  administrative  center.     (Gen.) 

Head-spar  tree.     In  steam  skidding,  the  tree  near  the  railroad  to  which  one 
end  of  the  cable  upon  which  the  trolley  runs  is  attached.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :   head  tree,  spar  tree. 

Head  tree.     See  Head-spar  tree. 

Headworks,  n.  A  platform  or  raft,  with  windlass  or  capstan,  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  front  of  a  log  raft  or  boom  of  logs  for  warping,  kedging,  or 
winding  it  through  lakes  and  still  water,  by  hand  or  horsepower.  (N.  W., 
L.  S.) 

Syn.:  crab.     (N.  F.,  S.  F.) 

Helper,  n.    See  Second  faUer. 

Herder,  n.     One  who  patrols  a  lumber  or  log  flume  to  prevent  jams.     (Cal.) 

High-lead  logging.  A  modification  of  donkey  yarding,  the  main  cable  rig- 
ging at  the  railroad  being  suspended  on  a  head-spar  similar  to  that  used 
in  cableway  logging.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Hoist,  n.     See  IncUne;  Loading  tripod. 

Hold,  n.  The  attachment  of  tackle  to  a  log  or  other  object  to  be  moved. 
(P.  C.  F.) 

Holding  boom.     See  Storage  boom. 

Hookaroon,  n.     A  recurved  pike,  or  a  pike  and  a  hook  fitted  to  a  handle  from 
36  to  38  inches  long.     Used  in  handUng  crossties,  lumber,  poles,  posts, 
staves,  timber,  and  like  products.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   pickaroon. 

Hooker,  n.     1.   One  who  works  with  a  teamster  in  bunching  logs.     (Cal.) 

2.  See  Ground  loader. 

3.  See  Hook  tender. 
Hooker-on.     See  Ground  loader. 

Hookman.     1.   One  who  works  with  a  cant  hook  or  peavey.     (L.  S.,  R.  M.  F.) 

2.    .See  Ground  loader. 
Hook  tender.     The  foreman  of  a  yarding  crew;   specifically,  one  who  directs 
the  attaching  of  the  cable  to  a  turn  of  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Syn.:   hooker  (P.  C.  F.),  logger  (Cal.),  yarding  hook  tender  (R.  M.  F.). 


490  APPENDIX 

Horse  dam.     A  temporary  dam  made  by  placing  large  logs  across  a  stream, 

in  order  to  raise  the  water  behind  it,  so  as  to  float  the  rear.     (N.  F.) 
Horse  logs,  to.     In  river  driving,  to  drag  stranded  logs  back  to  the  stream 

by  the  use  of  peaveys.     (N.  F.) 
Hot  logging.     A  logging  operation  in  which  logs  go  forward  from  stump  to 

inill  without  pause.     (Gen.) 
Hot  skidway.     A  skidway  from  which  logs  are  immediately  loaded.     (N.  W.) 
Hovel,  n.     A  stable  for  logging  teams.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Ice  a  road,  to.     To  sprinkle  water  on  a  logging  road  so  that  a  coating  of  ice 

may  form,  thus  facihtating  the  hauling  of  logs.     (N.  F.) 
Ice  box.     See  Sprinkler. 
Ice  guards.     Heavy  timbers  fastened  fan  shaped  about  a  cluster  of  boom 

piles  at  an  angle  of  approximately  30  degrees  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 

They  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  boom  by  ice,  through  forcing  it  to 

mount  the  guards  and  be  broken  up.     (N.  E.) 
Incline,  n.     A  portion  of  a  logging  railroad,  the  grade  of  which  is  too  steep 

for  the  operation  of  locomotives,  and  up  or  dowTi  which  the  log  cars  are 

raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  a  cable  and  power.     When  logs  are  hauled 

up  grade  the  incline  is  sometimes  called  a  hoist.     (Gen  ) 
Jack,  n.     1.    A  type  of  jack  screw  sometimes  used  for  rolling  logs  off  from  the 

right  of  way,  where  railroad  grading  is  being  done  by  hand.     The  jack 

screw  was  formerly  used  to  shift  logs  on  a  landing  when  cars  were  being 

loaded  by  hand.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.    In  aerial  logging,  a  shoe  which  rests  on  a  guy  line  and  supports  the 

loading  block.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Jack  chain.     An  endless  spiked  chain  which  moves  logs  from  one  point  to 

another,  usually  from  the  mill  pond  into  the  sawmill.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:    jacker  chain  (Gen.),  bull  chain,  log  haul  chain  (P.  C.  F.). 
Jackpot,  n.     1.    A  contemptuous  expression  applied  to  an  unskillful  piece  of 

work  in  logging.     (N.  F.) 

2.    An  irregular  pile  of  logs.     (App.) 
.      3.   A  bad  slash.     (N.  W.) 

4.   Lodgement  of  one  or  more  trees  in  another  in  felling. 
Syn.:   siwash.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Jack  works.     See  Loading  jack. 

Jam,  V.     To  form  an  obstruction  of  logs  in  a  stream.     (N.  F.,  E.  C.) 
Jam,  n.     A  stoppage  or  congestion  of  logs  in  a  stream,  due  to  an  obstruction 

or  to  low  water.     (Gen.) 
Jam  cracker.     See  Head  driver. 
Jam  hook.     See  Swamp  hook. 
Jammer,  n.     1.   An  improved  form  of  gin,  mounted  on  a  movable  framework, 

and  used  to  load  logs  on  sleds  and  cars  by  horse  power.     (N.  F.) 
2.   A  power  log  loader,  usually  of  the  McGiffert  type.     (Cal.) 
Jam,  to  break  a.     To  start  in  motion  logs  which  have  jammed.     (Gen.) 
Jay  hawk,  to.     To  strip  one  4-foot  length  of  bark  from  a  tanbark  oak,  leaving 

the  tree  standing.     (P.  C.  F.,  N.  W.) 
Jay  hole.     On  steep  skidding  roads,  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  team  when  the 

turn  of  logs  has  attained  high  speed.     (App.) 


TERMS  USED  IN  LOGGING  491 

J-hook,  n.     A  hook,  with  a  recurved  head,  to  each  end  of  which  a  grab  is 
attached  by  a  short  chain.     Tlie  J-hook  is  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  for- 
ward log  of  a  turn  on  a  skipper  road  and  serves  as  the  point  of  attachment 
for  the  draft.     If  the  logs  start  to  run,  the  draft  animals  can  be  automat- 
ically freed  by  turning  them  at  right  angles  to  the  road.     (App.) 
Jiboo,  V.     To  remove  a  dog  from  a  log.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Jig,  V.     See  Jigger. 
Jigger,  V.     To  pull  a  log  by  horse  power  over  a  level  place  in  a  slide.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   jig,  lazy  haul,  to  (Gen.),  trail  (R.  M.  F.). 
Jig  team.     A  team  of  horses  used  to  jigger  logs.     (App.) 
Jil-poke,  V.     To  obstruct  or  hang  up  temporarily,  a  log  drive.     (N.  W.) 
Jil-poke,  n.     See  Deadhead. 
Jim  binder.     See  Binder. 
Jim  crow.     A  type  of  rail  bender  used  for  bending  or  straightening  steel  rails. 

(Gen.) 
Jim  crow  loads.     A  logging  car  or  truck  loaded  with  a  log  so  large  that  one 

constitutes  a  load.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Jobber,  n.     A  logging  contractor  or  subcontractor.     (Gen.) 
Jobber's  sun.     A  term  applied  to  the  moon  in  a  jobber's  or  contractor's 
logging  camp,  on  account  of  the  early  and  late  hours  of  commencing  and 
ending  work.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Joint,  n.     A  section  of  a  raft.     (E.  C.) 
Juggler.     See  Log  roller. 

Jumbo,  n.    \.   A.  type  of  tongueless  double  sled  used  for  short-distance  haul- 
ing.     (L.  S.) 

Syn.:   double  dray. 
2.   See  Bull  block. 
Jumper,  n.     A  sled  made  wholly  of  wood,  used  for  hauling  supplies  over 
bare  ground  into  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.,  E.  C.) 
See  Mudboat;   Whip-poor-will. 
Syn.:   tote  sled. 
Katydid,  n.    See  Logging  wheels. 
Kedge.     See  Warp. 
Key  log.     In  river  driving,  a  log  which  is  so  caught  or  wedged  that  a  jam  is 

formed  and  held.     (Gen.) 
Kilhig,  n.     A  short,  stout  pole  used  as  a  lever  or  brace  to  direct  the  fall  of  a 

tree.     (N.  W.) 
King  swamper,  n.     A  head  swamper.     (S.  F.,  App.) 

Syn. :   buck  swamper. 
Knot,  V.     See  Limb. 
Knot  bumper.     See  Limber. 
Knotter,  n.     See  Limber. 

Laker,  n.     A  log  driver  expert  at  handling  logs  on  lakes.     (N.  F.) 
Landing,  n.     1.    A  place  to  which  logs  are  hauled  or  skidded  preparatory  to 
transportation  by  water  or  rail.     A  rough-and-tumble  landing  is  one  in 
which  no  attempt  is  made  to  pile  the  logs  regularly.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   bank,  banking  ground,  brow,  log  dump,  roUway,  yard. 
2.    A  platform,  usually  at  the  foot  of  a  skid  road,  where  logs  are  collected 


492  APPENDIX 

and  loaded  on  cars.     A  lightning  landing  is  one  having  such  an  inchne  that 
the  logs  may  roll  upon  the  cars  without  assistance.     (Gen.) 

3.    A  cribwork  of  logs,  constituting  a  platform  alongside  the  railroad 
track,  upon  which  logs  are  hauled  by  a  donke\-,  ready  for  loading  upon 
cars  or  trucks.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  roll  way. 

Landing  crew.     A  crew  that  constructs  landings.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Landing  man.     One  who  unloads  logging  sleds  at  the  landing.     (N.  F.) 

Landing,  to  break  a.  To  roll  a  pile  of  logs  from  a  landing  or  bank  into  the 
water.     (Gen.) 

Land  looker.     See  Cruiser. 

Lap,  n.     Tops  left  in  the  woods  in  logging.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   lap  wood. 

Lapwood,  n.     See  Lap. 

Lash  pole.     A  cross  pole  which  holds  logs  together  in  a  raft.     (Gen.) 

Lazy  haul,  to.     See  Jigger. 

Lead,  n.  A  block  or  roller  attached  to  a  stationary  object  which  guides  the 
pull  of  a  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Lead  block.     See  Bull  block. 

Lead  chains.     See  Cross  chains. 

Leaders,  n.     In  an  ox  or  horse  team,  the  forward  pair.     (Gen.) 

Lead  log.     See  Brow  skid;   Head  log. 

Lead  strap.  A  wire  rope,  with  an  eye  at  each  end,  used  to  anchor  the  block 
in  .setting  a  lead.     (P.  C.  F.) 

L-hook,  n.  An  L-shaped  hook  vAath  a  long  cable,  chain,  or  rope  attached. 
The  hook  is  fastened  to  the  rear  of  a  turn  of  logs  in  the  trailing  portion  of  a 
slide  and  the  draft  animals  to  the  cable.  When  the  turn  starts  to  run  on 
a  steep  portion  of  the  slide  the  hook  is  automatically  released  and  pre- 
vents the  logs  from  dragging  the  draft  animals.     (App.) 

Lift  gate.  In  a  logging  dam  sluiceway,  a  gate  which  may  be  moved  up  or 
down  in  vertical  slides  or  grooves,  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  sluiceway. 
(Gen.) 

Lightning  landing.     See  Landing,  2. 

Lightwood,  n.     Pine  wood  which  is  heavily  impregnated  with  a  resinous 
substance.     (S.  F.) 
Syn.:  fatwood. 

Limb,  V.     To  remove  the  limbs  from  a  felled  tree. 
Syn.:  knot.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Limber,  n.     One  who  cuts  the  limbs  from  felled  trees.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   knot  bumper  (App.)  knotter.     (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.) 

Limber  boom.  A  flexible  boom,  the  sticks  of  which  are  usually  joined  to  each 
other  by  means  of  short  chains  or  short  pieces  of  manila  rope  or  wire  cable. 

Lineman,  ?i.     One  in  charge  of  hauling  logs  in  a  chute.     (S.  F.) 

Line  horse.  1.  The  horse  which  drags  the  cable  from  the  yarding  engine  or 
skidder  to  the  log  to  which  the  cable  is  to  be  attached.     (S.  F.) 

2.  A  horse  used  to  aid  the  rigging  crew  in  changing  lines.  Formerly,  the 
animal  used  to  haul  out  the  cable  from  the  yarding  engine  to  the  log. 
(P.  C.  F.) 


TERMS  USED   IN   LOGGING  493 

Lizard,  n.     A  crude  sled  made  from  the  crotch  of  a  tree,  used  in  skidding  logs 

in  muddy  places.     The  forward  end  of  the  log  rests  on  the  sled.     (S.  F.) 

See  Dray. 
Loader,  n.     1.    One  who  loads  logs  on  sleds  or  cars.     (Gen.) 

2.   See  Steam  loader. 
Loader  leverman.     One  who  operates  the  levers  controlling  the  drums  on  a 

power  loading  device.     (S.  F.) 
Loaderman.     See  Loader. 
Loading  chain.     A  long  chain  used  in  loading  or  piling  logs  with  horses. 

(N.  F.) 
Syn.:   decking  chain,  loading  line,  rolling  chain. 
See  Crotch  chain. 
Loading  dock.     See  Loading  jack. 
Loading  jack.     A  platformed  framework  upon  which  logs  are  hoisted  from 

the  water  for  loading  upon  cars.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:   jack  works  (N.  F.),  loading  dock.     (L.  S.) 
Loading  line.     1.    The  cable  on  a  power  skidding  device  used  for  loading  logs 

on  cars.     (Gen.) 

2.    See  Loading  chain. 
Loading  tripod.     Three  long  timbers  joined  at  their  tops  in  the  shape  of  a 

tripod,  for  holding  a  pulley  block  in  proper  position  to  load  logs  on  cars 

from  a  lake  or  stream.     (L.  S.) 
Syn.:   hoist. 
Lobby,  n.     In  a  logging  camp,  a  room  in  which  the  men  wash  and  wait  for 

meal-time.     Generally  found  in  two-storied  camps  which  have  the  sleeping 

quarters  on  the  second  floor.     (App.) 
Lobby  hog.     See  Chore  boy. 
Lock  down.     A  strip  of  tough  wood,  with  holes  in  the  ends,  which  is  laid 

across  a  raft  of  logs.     Rafting  pins  are  driven  through  the  holes  into  the 

logs,  thus  holding  the  raft  together.     (N.  F.) 
Lodge,  to.     See  Hang  up,  to. 
Logan,  n.     See  Pokelogan. 
Log  boat.     A  -short,  tongueless  sled  with  wood  runners,  used  to  haul  logs  to  a 

portable  mill  operation.     (N.  F.) 
Log  chute.     1.    A  trough  made  of  timbers  and  used  for  sliding  logs  down  hill, 

either  dry  or  by  aid  of  water.     (E.  C.) 
Log  deck.     The  platform  upon  a  loading  jack.     (Gen.) 
Log  dump.     See  Landing. 
Log  fixer.     See  Rosser. 
Logger,  n.     1.    One  engaged  in  logging. 
Syn.:   lumber  jack. 
2.   See  Hook  tender. 
Logging  sled.     The  heavy  double  sled  used  to  haul  logs  from  the  skidway  or 

yard  to  the  landing.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:   sleigh,  twin  sleds,  two  sleds,  wagon  sled. 
Logging-sled  road.     A  road  leading  from  the  skidway  to  the  landing.     (N.  F.) 
Logging  truck.     A  four-wheeled  logging  railroad  truck  with  a  bunk  on  which 


494  APPENDIX 

is  carried  one  end  of  a  load  of  logs.     The  opposite  ends  of  the  logs  are  sup- 
ported on  a  similar  truck,  a  gooseneck  often  being  omitted.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   truck. 
Logging  wheels.     A  pair  of  wheels  from  7  to  12  feet  in  diameter,  for  trans- 
porting logs.     (Gen.) 

Sj'n.:   katydid,  shp-tongue  cart,  sulky,  timber  wheels  (Gen.),  big  wheels. 
(Cal.) 
Log  hauler.     A  steam  or  gasoHne  power  engine  with  a  special  traction  device 
which  is  used  in  place  of  horses  to  haul  logging  sleds.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   caterpillar.     (E.  C.) 
Log  maker.     See  Bucker. 

Log  scale.     The  contents  of  a  log,  or  of  a  number  of  logs  considered  collec- 
tively.    (Gen.) 
Log  sorter.     See  Mark  caller. 
Log  spur.     See  Spur. 
Log  stamp.     See  Marking  hammer. 
Log,  to.     To  cut  logs  and  deliver  them  at  a  place  from  which  they  can  be 

transported  by  water  or  rail,  to  the  mill.     (Gen.) 
Log  watch.     See  Head  driver. 
Long  butt,  to.     See  Butt  off,  to. 
Lookout.     See  Signal  man. 
Loose-tongued  sloop.     See  Swing  dingle. 
Lop,  V.     To  cut  the  limbs  from  a  felled  tree.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   top-lop.     (E.  C.) 
Lot,  n.     A  piece  of  standing  timber,  small  in  area.     (N.  F.) 
Lubber  lift,  to.     To  raise  the  end  of  a  log  by  means  of  a  pry,  and  through  the 

use  of  weight  instead  of  strength.     (N.  F.) 
Lug  hooks.     A  pair  of  tongs  attached  to  the  middle  of  a  short  bar,  and  used 
by  two  men  to  carry  small  logs.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   timber  carrier,  timber  grapple. 
Lumber,  v.     To  log  or  to  manufacture  logs  into  lumber,  or  both.     (Gen.) 
Lumberjack,  n.     One  who  works  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:    timber  beast,  woodhick  (App.,  N.  W.),  logger  (P.  C.  F.),  shanty 
man.     (E.  C.) 
Lumberman,  n.     One  engaged  in  lumbering.     (Gen.) 
Main  line.     See  Skyline. 

Mark,  n.     A  letter  or  .sign  indicating  ownership,  which  is  stamped  on  the 
ends  of  logs.     (Gen.)     See  Bark  mark. 
Syn.:   brand,  end  mark. 
Mark  caller.     In  sorting  logs,  one  who  stands  at  the  lower  end  of  the  sorting 
jack  and  calls  the  different  marks,  so  that  the  logs  may  be  guided  into  the 
proper  channels  or  pockets.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   log  sorter.     (N.  W.) 
Marker,  n.     1    One  who  puts  the  mark  on  the  ends  of  logs.     (Gen.) 

2.    One  who  marks  boles  into  log  lengths  for  buckers.     (Cal.) 
Market,  n.     A  log  19  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end  and  13  feet  long. 
(New  York.)     See  Quebec  standard. 
Syn.:  standard. 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  495 

Marking  hammer.  A  hammer  bearing  a  raised  device  which  is  stamped  on 
logs  to  indicate  ownership.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :    marking  iron  (Gen.),  log  stamp,  stamping  hammer.     (E.  C.) 

Marking  iron.     See  Marking  hammer. 

Match,  V.     See  Mate. 

Mate,  v.     To  place  together  in  a  raft  logs  of  similar  size.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   match. 

Merchantable  log.  A  log  that  will  make  lumber  of  a  quahty  and  in  sufficient 
amount  to  make  it  profitable  to  take  it  to  a  mill  and  have  it  sawed.  (Su- 
preme Court  of  Michigan,  82  Northwest  Reporter,  230.) 

Merchantable  timber.  Usually  interpreted  to  mean  timber  that  can  be  manu- 
factured and  .sold  at  not  less  than  cost.  The  purpose  for  which  the  timber 
is  to  be  used  and  local  customs  are  factors  which  influence  the  degree  of 
utiUzation. 

Messenger.     See  Haul  back. 

Mill  pond.  The  pond  near  a  sawmill  in  which  logs  to  be  sawn  are  held. 
(Gen.) 

Mill  scale.  The  scale  of  logs  made  at  the  rafting  boom  or  at  the  sawmill. 
(Gen.) 

Mine  prop.     A  small  stull.     (R.  M.  F.) 

Monitor.     See  Catamaran. 

Moss,  V.     See  Chink. 

Mud,  V.     To  fill  with  soft  clay  or  mortar  the  crevices  between  the  logs  in  a 
logging  camp.     It  u.sually  is  preceded  by  chinking.     (N.  E.)     See  Chink. 
S\Ti.:  daub.     (R.  M.  F.) 

Mudboat,  n.     A  low  sled  with  wide  runners,  u.sed  for  hauUng  logs  in  swamps. 
(S.  F.,  N.  F.) 
Syn.:   jumper.     (N.  W.) 

Mudsill,  n.     1.    The  bed  piece  or  bottom  timber  of  a  dam  which  is  placed 
across  the  stream,  usually  resting  on  rocks  or  in  the  mud.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   bottom  sill. 

2.   Short  pieces  of  timber  placed  crosswise  imdemeath  the  main  sill  of 
each  bent  in  a  railroad  bridge.     (Gen.) 

Mule  cart.  A  4-wheeled  vehicle  used  in  the  Coastal  Plain  region  for  hauling 
logs.     The  logs  are  suspended  under  the  axle  of  the  rear  wheels.     (S.  F.) 

Mulligan  car.     See  Camp  car. 

Needle  gate.     In  a  logging  dam  .sluiceway,  narrow  timbers  or  poles  with  two 
or  more  squared  faces  which  are  placed  in  contact  across  the  opening  of  the 
.sluice  to  prevent  the  outflow  of  water.     One  or  more  "  needles  "  may  be 
removed  without  disturbing  the  remainder.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  bracket  gate. 

Nick,  n.     See  Undercut. 

Nipper,  n.  A  member  of  the  steel  crew,  who  by  means  of  a  crow-bar  and  a 
block  used  as  a  fulcrum  holds  the  end  of  the  crosstie  against  the  base  of 
the  rail  while  the  spikes  are  being  driven.     (Gen.) 

North  Carolina  pine.  Pine  timber  cut  in  the  Coastal  Plain  region  of  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina.     (S.  F.) 


496  APPENDIX 

Nose,  r.     To  round  off  the  end  of  a  log  in  order  to  make  it  drag  or  slip  more 

easily.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   snipe. 
Notch,  I'.     To  make  an  midercut  in  a  tree  preparatory  to  felling  it.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   box,  undercut. 
Notch,  n.     See  Undercut. 
One-block  hold.     See  Block  hold. 
Overrun,  n.     The  difference  between  the  mill  cut  of  merchantable  lumber 

and  the  log  scale.     U.sually  calculated  as  a  per  cent  of  1000  feet  log  scale. 

(Gen.) 
Pair  of  fallers.     See  FalUng  crew. 
Parbuckle,  n.     See  Crotch  chain. 

Park,  r.     To  collect  crossties  along  a  strip  road,  u-sually  by  hand.    (R.  M.  F.) 
Peaker,  n.     1.    A  load  of  logs  narrowing  sharply  toward  the  top  and  thus 

shaped  like  an  inverted  V.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :   wind  splitter. 
2.   The  top  log  of  a  load.     (Gen.) 
Peavey,  n.     A  stout  lever  from  5  to  7  feet  long,  fitted  at  the  larger  end  with 

a  metal  socket  and  spike  and  a  curved  steel  hook  which  works  on  a  bolt; 

used  in  handhng  logs,  especially  in  driving.     A  peavey  differs  from  a  cant 

hook  in  having  a  pike  instead  of  a  toe  ring  and  Up  at  the  end.     (Gen.) 

See  Cant  dog;   Cant  hook. 
Pecky,  a.     A  term  applied  to  a  defect  common  in  bald  cypress.     (S.  F.) 

Syn.:   peggy. 
Peeler,  n.     See  Barker. 
Peggy,  a.     See  Pecky. 
Pickaroon,  n.     A  piked  pole  fitted  with  a  curved  hook,  used  in  holding  boats 

to  jams  in  driving,  and  for  puUing  logs  from  brush  and  eddies  out  into  the 

current.     (Gen.) 
Pick  the  rear,  to.     See  Sack  the  rear,  to. 
Pier  dam.     A  pier  built  from  the  shore,  usually  slanting  downstream,  to 

narrow  and  deepen  the  channel,  to  guide  logs  past  an  obstruction,  or  to 

throw  all  the  water  on  one  side  of  an  island.     (N.F.) 
Syn.:  side  pier,  wing  dam. 
Pig,  n.     See  Rigging  sled. 
Pigman,  n.     See  Chaser. 
Pig  tail.     An  iron  device  driven  into  trees  or  stumps  to  support  a  wire  or 

small  rope.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Pike  lever.     See  Hand  pike. 
Pike  pole.     A  piked  pole  from  12  to  20  feet  long,  wath  or  without  a  hook, 

used  in  holding  boats  to  jams  in  driving  and  for  pidling  logs  from  brush  and 

eddies  out  into  the  current.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   gaff.     (E.  C.) 
Pile  dam.     A  dam  formed  by  a  double  row  of  piles  between  which  are  placed 

stones,  gravel,  and  fine  material  to  prevent  the  passage  of  water.     (L.  S.) 
Pin  dote.     Small  rotten  spots  on  the  ends  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Pine  sawyer.     A  beetle  of  the  genus  Monohammus  which  attacks  the  sap- 
wood  of  pine  logs.     (S.  F.) 


TERMS  USED  IN   LOGGING  497 

Pin  worm  holes.     Small  holes  in  timl)er  and  lumber  made  by  the  larvae  of 

certain  beetles.     (Gen.) 
Pit,  n.     A  skidway  elevated  so  that  its  base  is  level  with  the  logging  car  bunks. 

(App.) 
Pitch  pocket.     In  coniferous  woods,  an  opening  between  the  annual  growth 
rings  containing  pitch.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   pitch  seam.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Pitch  seam.     See  Pitch  pocket. 
Pitch  streak.     In  coniferous  woods,  a  well-defined  accumulation  of  pitch  at 

one  point.     (Gen.) 
Plug,  n.     A  steel  pin  about  2  inches  in  diameter  and  18  inches  long.     Two  of 
the  plugs  are  joined  together  by  chains  which  are  attached  to  a  large  ring. 
They  are  used  on  puUboat  operations  in  a  cypress  swamp  in  place  of  skid- 
ding tongs.     (S.  F.) 
Syn. :   puppy. 
Plug  and  knock  down.     A.  device  for  fastening  boom  sticks  together,  in  the 
absence  of  chains.     It  consists  of  a  withe  secured  by  wooden  plugs  in 
holes  bored  in  the  booms.     (N.  F.) 
Pocket  boom.     A  boom  in  which  logs  are  held  after  they  are  sorted.     (Gen.) 
Point,  V.     See  Gun. 

Pokelogan,  n.     A  bay  or  pocket  into  which  logs  may  float  during  a  drive. 
(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Syn.:   logan,  set-back. 
Pole  chute.     See  Fore-and-aft  road. 

Pole  tie.     A  tie  made  from  a  stick  of  timber  yielding  only  one  tie.     (Gen.) 
Pole  tram  road.     A  logging  road,  the  rails  of  which  are  round  poles.     (App., 

S.  F.) 
Pontoon.     See  Catamaran. 

Potter,  n.  A  round  stick,  3  or  4  inches  in  diameter  and  2|  or  3  feet  long, 
around  the  center  of  which  is  fitted  an  iron  clasp  to  which  is  fastened  a 
short  piece  of  chain  with  a  hook  on  the  free  end.  It  is  used  when  loading 
logging  sleds  to  prevent  logs  from  rolhng  off  the  far  side  of  the  load  until 
binding  chains  are  placed  in  position.  (N.  W.) 
Pouch,  n.     A  French   term  apphed  derisively  by  lumber  jacks  to  woods 

workers  who  shift  from  camp  to  camp.     (N.  W.)     See  Camp  inspector. 
Preparer,  n.     See  Fitter. 

Prime  log.     In  the  export  market,  one  that  is  free  from  defects.     (Gen.) 
Prize  logs.     Logs  which  come  to  the  .sorting  jack  without  marks  denoting 

ownership.     (N.  F.)     See  Stray. 
Prop,  n.     In  mining,  a  round,  squared,  or  split  timber  which  supports  the  cap 
and  lagging  or  which  is  placed  directly  under  the  roof  to  support  the  same 
witliout  a  cap  or  lagging.     (Gen.) 
Pull  back.     See  Haul  back. 
Pullboat     A  flatboat,  carrying  a  .steam  skidder  or  a  donkey,  used  in  logging 

cypress.     (S.  F.) 
Pull  the  briar,  to.     To  use  a  cros.s-cut  saw.     (N.  F.) 
Puppy,  n.     See  Plug. 
Push.     See  Camp  foreman. 


498  APPENDIX 

Put  in,  to.     In  logging,  to  deliver  logs  at  the  landing.     (Gen.) 

Quarter  tie.  A  tie  made  from  a  stick  of  timber  yielding  four  or  more  ties- 
(S.  F.) 

Quebec  deal.     See  Deal. 

Quebec  standard.  A  white  pine  log  22  inches  in  diameter,  inside  bark,  at 
the  small  end  and  12  feet  long.  A  spruce  or  balsam  log  14  inches  in  diam- 
eter inside  bark  at  small  end  and  12  feet  long.     (E.  C.)     See  Market. 

Quickwater,  n.  That  part  of  a  stream  which  has  fall  enough  to  create  a 
decided  current.     (Gen.) 

Sj^n.:   white  water.     (N.  W.) 
Ant. :   Stillwater. 

Raft  bundle.     Logs  bound  together  into  a  circular  unit  for  towing.     (S.  F.) 

Rafter  dam.  A  dam  in  which  long  timbers  are  set  on  the  upstream  side  at 
an  angle  of  from  20  to  40  degrees  to  the  water  surface.  The  pressure 
of  the  water  against  the  timbers  holds  the  dam  solidly  against  the  stream 
bed.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:   self-loading  dam,  slant  dam. 

Rafting  dog.  A  wedge-shaped  piece  of  metal  with  a  ring  or  e^^e  in  the  blunt 
end.  Dogs  are  driven  into  boom  sticks  and  often  into  the  timbers  being 
rafted,  the  raft  members  being  held  together  by  chains,  cables,  or  rope, 
passed  through  the  rings  or  eyes. 

Rafting  pin.  A  round  or  wedge-shaped  wooden  pin  used  to  wedge  cable  in 
the  rafting  pin  holes  on  a  raft.     (Gen.) 

Rag  a  wedge,  to.  To  roughen  the  surface  of  a  wooden  wedge  with  an  ax  to 
prevent  it  from  jumping  out  of  the  saw  cut  in  frozen  timber.     (E.  C.) 

Ram  pike.  A  tree  broken  off  by  wind  and  with  a  splintered  end  on  the 
portion  left  standing.      N.  F.) 

Rank,  v.     To  haul  and  pile  regularly,  as,  to  rank  bark  or  cord  wood.     (Gen.) 

Ranking  bar.     See  Handbarrow. 

Ranking  jumper.     A  wood-shod  sled  upon  which  tanbark  is  hauled.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:    bark  dray.     (App.) 

Ratline,  n.     A  rope  through  which  at  intervals  small  pins  are  driven  into  the 
logs  which  are  to  compose  a  raft  joint.     Its  purpose  is  to  hold  the  logs 
together  until  the  boom  poles  can  be  adjusted.     (E.  C.) 
Syn. :  rattling  line. 

Rattling  line.     See  Ratline. 

Rave,  n.  A  piece  of  iron  or  wood  which  secures  the  beam  to  the  runners  of 
a  logging  sled.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Rawhide,  v.  To  carry  on  one's  back.  Usually  applied  to  the  carrying  of 
tanbark.     (App.) 

Rear,  n.  The  up-stream  end  of  a  drive;  the  logs  may  be  either  stranded  or 
floating.  "  Floating  rear "  comprises  those  logs  which  may  be  floated 
back  into  the  current;  "  dry  rear,"  those  which  must  be  dragged  or  rolled 
back.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   tail  end.     (N.  W.) 

Receiving  boom.    See  Storage  boom. 

Red  heart.     See  Firm  red  heart. 


TERMS  USED   IN   LOGGING  499 

Refuse,  n.     That  portion  of  a  tree  which  cannot  be  removed  profitably  from 

the  forest  or  utiUzed  profitabh^  at  the  manufacturing  plant.     (Gen.) 
Return  line.     See  Haul  back. 
Rick,  n.     A  pile  of  cordwood,  stave  bolts,  or  other  material  split  from  short 

logs.     (Gen.) 
2.   A  pile  of  firewood  8  feet  long,  4  feet  high,  and  of  a  width  equal  to  the 

length  of  one  stick.     (C.  H.  F.) 
Ride,  n.     The  side  of  a  log  upon  which  it  rests  when  being  dragged.     (Gen.) 
Ride  a  log,  to.     To  stand  on  a  floating  log.     (Gen.) 
Ridge  runner.     A  farmer  who  is  an  intermittent  logger.     (App.) 
Rigger.     See  Rigging  slinger. 
Rigging,  n.     The  cables,  blocks  and  hooks  used  in  skidding  logs  by  steam 

power.     (Gen.) 
Rigging  sled.     A  sled  used  to  haul  hooks  and  blocks  on  a  skid  road.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Syn. :   chute  boat,  dog  boat,  pig. 
Rigging  slinger.     1.    A  member  of  a  yarding  crew,  whose  chief  duty  is  to 

place  chokers  or  grabs  on  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.   One  who  attaches  the  rigging  to  trees,  in  steam  skidding.     (S.  F.) 
Syn.:   rigger. 
Ring,  n.     A  section  of  tanbark,  usually  4  feet  long.     (N.  F.) 
Ring  rot.     Decay  in  a  log,  which  follows  the  annual  rings  more  or  less  closely. 

(Gen.) 
Rise,  n.     The  difference  in  diameter,  or  taper,  between  two  points  on  a  log. 

(Gen.) 
Rive,  V.     To  split  shingles  or  shakes  from  bolts.     (Gen.) 
River  boss.     The  foreman  in  charge  of  a  log  drive.     (N.  F.) 
River  driver.     One  who  works  on  a  log  drive.     (Gen.) 
River  hog.    See  River  rat. 
River  pig.     See  River  rat. 
River  rat.     A  log  driver  whose  work  is  chiefly  on  the  river;   contrasted  with 

Laker.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:    river  hog,  river  pig. 
Road  donkey.    See  Roader. 
Road  engine.     See  Roader. 
Roader,  n.     A  donkey  engine  mounted  on  a  heavy  sled,  which  is  used  for 

long-distance  hauling  either  on  the  ground  or  on  a  skid  road.     It  is  equipped 

with  three  drums  —  one  for  the  pulling  line,  one  for  the  haul  back,  and  one 

for  loading.     (P.  C.  F.)     See  Yarding  donkey. 

Syn.:   bull  donkey,  road  donkey,  road  engine  (P.  C.  F.),  Takoma  (Cal.), 

donkey. 
Road  gang.     That  portion  of  the  crew  of  a  logging  camp  which  cuts  logging 

roads  and  keeps  them  in  repair.     (N.  F.) 
Road  monkey.     One  whose  duty  is  to  keep  a  logging  road  in  proper  condition. 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:    dolly,  roller,  stump  roller,  stump  spool,  upright  roller,  yarding 

spool. 
Road  roller.     A  flanged  roller  placed  upright  at  a  bend  in  a  skid  road  to 


500  APPENDIX 

direct  the  cable.     It  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  bull  block  in  yarding 

logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Sj'D.:   blue  jay,  chickadee  (N.  F.),  sandman. 
Road  scale.     The  scale  of  logs  which  is  taken  on  the  landing.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Rocker,  n.     The  top  bunk  on  the  forward  pair  of  runners  of  a  logging  sled. 

It  i.s  fastened  to  the  lower  bunk  by  a  kingpin.     (N.  W.) 
Rodeur.     See  Camp  inspector. 
Roll,  n.     The  crossbar  of  a  logging  sled  into  which  the  tongue  is  set.     (N.  W.. 

L.  S.) 

Syn.:   roller. 
Roll  a  log,  to.     To  so  attach  a  choker  to  a  log  that  the  latter  roUs  sidewise 

when  power  is  apphed  to  a  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Roll  bark.     Hemlock  tanbark  that  has  not  been  carefuUy  dried  and  hence  is 

of  inferior  quahty.     (N.  F.) 
Roll-down  man.     See  Tailer-in. 
Roller,  n.    See  Roll;  Road  roUer. 
Rolling  chain.     See  Loading  chain. 
Rolling  dam.     A  dam  for  raising  the  water  in  a  shallow  stream.     It  has  no 

sluiceways,  but  a  smooth  top  of  timber  over  which,  under  a  sufficient  head 

of  water,  logs  may  sUde  or  roll.     (Gen.) 
Roll  logs,  to.     To  turn  over  the  logs  on  a  landing  so  that  the  bark  marks  can 

be  inspected  by  the  scaler.     (E.  C.) 
Roll  the  boom,  to.     To  roU  a  boom  of  logs  along  the  shore  of  a  lake  against 

which  it  is  held  by  wind,  by  the  use  of  a  cable  operated  by  a  steamboat  or 

kedge.     The  cable  is  attached  to  the  outer  side  of  the  boom,  hauled  up, 

then  attached  again,   thus  propeUing  the  boom  by  revolving  it  against 

the  shore  when  it  woidd  be  impossible  to  tow  it.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Roll  up.     See  Bank  up. 
Rollway,  n.     See  Landing. 
Rooster,  n.    See  Gooseneck. 
Rosser,  n.     1.     One  who  barks  and  smooths  the  ride  of  a  log  in  order  that  it 

may  shde  more  easily.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:   log  fixer,  rosser  (P.  C.  F.),  scalper,  slipper.     (App.) 

2.  One  who  peels  pulpwood  and  logs.     (N.  W.) 

3.  See  Barker. 

Rossing-mill,  n.     A  plant  at  which  bark  is  removed  from  pulpwood  by  means 

of  machinery.     fN.  W.,  E.  C.) 
Rotten  knot.     A  knot  which  is  not  as  hard  as  the  surrounding  wood.     (Gen.) 
Rough  and  tumble  landing.     See  Landing. 
Round  boom.     A  limber  boom  used  to  impound  logs  during  towing.     (L,  S.) 

See  Bag  boom. 
Round  knot.     A  knot  that  is  oval  or  circular  in  form.     (Gen.) 
Round  timber.     Timber  which  has  not  been  bled  for  crude  turpentine.     (S.  F.) 
Round  turn.     A  space  at  the  head  of  a  logging-sled  road,  in  which  the  sled 

may  be  turned  round  mthout  unhitching  the  team.     (N.  F.) 
Rudder  boom.     See  Fin  boom. 
Rim,  n.     A  narrow  trail,  cleared  of  brush  and  stumps,  down  which  logs  are 

puUed  by  a  power  skidder.     (S.  F.) 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  501 

Run  cutter.  One  who  clears  narrow  trails  which  radiate  from  a  puUboat  or 
from  a  head-spar  tree,  down  which  logs  are  hauled  by  a  power  skidder. 
(S.  F.) 

Runner  chain.  A  chain  bound  loosely  around  the  forward  end  of  the  rim- 
ners  of  a  logging  sled  as  a  brake.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Runner  dog.  A  curved  iron  attached  to  a  runner  of  the  hind  sled  of  a  log- 
ging sled,  which  holds  the  loaded  sled  on  steep  hills  by  being  forced  into 
the  bed  of  the  road  by  any  backward  movement.     (N.  F.) 

Running  slide.     A  slide  on  which  logs  run  by  gravity.     (App.) 

Runway.     See  Gutter  road. 

Rutter,  n.  A  form  of  plow  for  cutting  ruts  in  a  logging  road  for  the  runners 
of  the  sleds  to  run  in.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Sack  the  rear,  to.  To  follow  a  drive  and  roll  in  logs  which  have  lodged  or 
grounded.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   pick  the  rear,  to;   sweep  the  rear,  to.     (E.  C.) 

Sack  the  slide,  to.     To  return  to  a  sHde  logs  which  have  jumped  out.     (Gen.) 

Saddle,  n.  The  depression  cut  in  a  transverse  skid  in  a  skid  road  to  guide 
the  logs  which  pass  over  it.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Saddlebag,  r.  As  apphed  to  a  boom,  to  catch  on  an  obstruction  and  double 
around  it.     (Gen.) 

Sampson,  n.  1.  An  appliance  for  loosening  or  starting  logs  by  horsepower. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  strong,  heavy  timber  and  a  chain  terminating  in  a 
heavy  swamp  hook.  The  timber  is  placed  upright  beside  the  piece  to  be 
moved,  the  chain  fastened  around  it,  and  the  hook  inserted  low  down  on 
the  opposite  side.  Leverage  is  then  applied  by  a  team  hitched  to  the  upper 
end  of  the  upright  timber.     (N.  F.) 

Sampson  a  tree,  to.  To  direct  the  fall  of  a  tree  by  means  of  a  lever  and  pole. 
(N.  F.) 

Sandman.     See  Road  monkey. 

Sap  stain.     Discoloration  of  the  sapwood.     (Gen.) 

Satchel  stick.  A  stick  carried  on  the  shoulder  and  used  by  a  lumberjack  to 
support  his  turkey.     (App.) 

Saw  boss.     Foreman  of  the  felling  and  log-making  crews.     (S.  F.) 
Syn.:  captain  (S.  F.),  bull  bucker,  head  bucker.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Saw  fitter.     See  Filer. 

Saw  kerf.     The  width  of  cut  made  by  a  saw.     (Gen.) 

Saw  timber.  Logs  suitable  in  size  and  length  for  the  production  of  mer- 
chantable lumber. 

Sawyer,  n.     See  Faller. 

Scale,  V.     To  measure  the  volume  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   cuU.     (E.  C.) 

Scale  book.  A  book  e.specially  designed  for  recording  the  contents  of  scaled 
logs.     (Gen.) 

Scaler,  n.     One  who  determines  the  volume  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
.Syn.:   culler.     (E.  C.) 

Scalper,  n.     See  Rosser. 

Schoodic  chain  bind.  A  method  of  binding  logs  to  the  bunk  of  a  dray.  Two 
forms  are  in  use,  namely,  the  single  schoodic  and  the  double  schoodic. 
(N.  W.) 


502  APPENDIX 

Scoot,  a.     See  Dray. 

Score,  /'.     In  hewing  timber,  to  mark  with  Hnes  or  with  ax  hacks  the  limits  of 

the  cut,  both  as  to  width  and  depth.     (Gen.) 
Scotch,  n.     See  Gooseneck. 
Scratch  grade.     A  logging  railroad  grade  on  which  only  hght  work  has  been 

done.     (P.  C.  F.,  S.  F.) 
Seam.     See  Check. 
Season  check.     See  Check. 
Second  faller.     The  subordinate  in  a  crew  of  two  fallers.     (P.  C.  F.)     See 

Head  faller. 

Syn.:  faller,  helper.  (N.  F.) 
Second  loader.  See  Head  loader. 
Section,  n.     A  portion  of  a  log  raft,  separated  by  swifters,  usually  containing 

two  tiers  of  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Self-loading  dam.     See  Rafter  dam. 
Self-loading  skidder.     See  Bummer. 
Sender.     See  Ground  loader. 
Send-up  man.     See  Ground  loader. 
Send  up,  to.     In  loading,  to  raise  logs  up  skids  with  cant  hooks,  or  by  steam 

or  horse  power.  (Gen.) 
Set  back.  See  Pokelogan. 
Set  gauge.     A  tool  used  by  a  cross-cut  saw  filer  to  regulate  the  amount  of 

set  given  to  each  tooth.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   spider. 
Setting,  n.     The  temporary  station  of  a  portable  sawmill,  a  yarding  engine, 

or  other  machine  used  in  logging.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :   set-up. 
Set-up,  n.     See  Setting. 
Shackle.    See  Yoke. 
Shake,  n.     1.   A  form  of  shingle  split  from  a  bolt  of  wood  and  used  to  cover 

both  the  roofs  and  sides  of  buildings.     Those  made  of  sugar  pine  are  32 

inches  long,  5  inches  wide,  and  ?i6  of  an  inch  thick  on  the  thin  edge. 
Syn.:   hand-made  shingle,  roof  board.     (App.) 
2.  A  crack  in  timber,  due  to  frost  or  wind.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  wandshake. 
Shake  roof.    See  SpUt  roof. 
Shanty  boat.     See  Wanigan. 
Shanty  boss.     1.   See  Camp  foreman. 

2.    .See  Chore  boy. 
Shanty  man.     See  Lumberjack. 
Sheer  boom.     A  boom  so  secured  that  it  guides  floating  logs  in  the  desired 

direction.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:  fender  boom,  glancing  boom. 
Sheer  skid.     See  Fender  skid. 
Shim,  n.     Blocking  placed  under  crossties  to  level  up  the  track;  also  used  to 

keep  the  track  from  .sinking  into  the  mud.     (Gen.) 
Shim  up,  to,  V.    To  place  shims  under  a  railroad  track.     (Gen.) 


TERMS  U>SED   IN   LOGGING  503 

Shingle  bolt.     A  short  spht  section  of  a  log  from  which  shingles  are  manu- 
factured.    (Gen.)    See  Bolt. 
Shoot  a  jam,  to.     To  loosen  a  log  jam  with  dynamite.     (Gen.) 
Shore  hold.     The  attachment  of  the  hawser  of  a  raft  of  logs  to  an  object  on 

the  shore.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Short  road.    See  Go-back  road. 
Shot-gun,  n.    See  Gun. 

Shot  holes.     Holes  made  in  wood  bj-  boring  insects.     (App.) 
Show,  n.     See  Chance. 

Side,  n.     The  crew  of  men,  including  faUers,  buckers,  rigging  men,  loaders, 
and  all  others  working  with  a  3'arding  donkey.     When  a  roader  or  swing 
donkey  takes  logs  from  the  yarding  donkey  the  men  operating  them  are 
included  in  the  side.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Side  boss.     The  foreman  of  a  "  side."     (P.  C.  F.) 

Side  jam.  A  jam  which  has  formed  on  one  side  of  a  stream,  usually  where 
the  logs  are  forced  to  the  shore  at  a  bend  by  the  current,  or  where  the 
water  is  shallow  or  there  are  partially  submerged  rocks.  (N.  F.) 
Side  line  logs,  to.  1.  To  throw  the  hauhng  cable  around  a  stump,  out  of  the 
direct  line  of  pull,  in  order  to  change  the  direction  of  travel  of  the  log  and 
thus  avoid  some  obstruction  in  its  path.  (Gen.) 
Syn.:  siwash.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.    To  draw  logs  up  to  the  main  hauhng  cable.     (S.  F.) 
Side-line  man.     One  who  carries  the  side  hnes  from  the  main  cable  of  a  pull- 
boat  and  attaches  them  to  the  logs  that  are  to  be  skidded.     (S.  F.) 
Side  mark.     See  Bark  mark. 
Side  pier.     See  Pier  dam. 
Side  pole.     See  Sway  bar. 
Side  winder.     A  tree  knocked  down  unexpectedly  by  the  falhng  of  another. 

(Gen.) 
Signal  man.     One  who  transmits  orders  from  the  foreman  of  a  yarding  crew 
to  the  engineer  of  the  yarding  donkey. 
Syn.:   lookout,  signal  punk,  whistle  punk. 
Signal  punk.     See  Signal  man. 
Single  cord.     A  pile  of  wood,   8  feet  long,   4  feet  high,  and  2  feet  wide. 

(C.  H.  F.) 
Single  coupler.     Single  couphng  grabs  joined  by  a  short  chain  or  cable,  u.sed 
for  fastening  logs  together.     (App.) 
Syn.:   tail  grab. 
Single  out,  to.     To  float  logs,  usually  cypress,  one  at  a  time,  from  the  woods 

to  the  float  road.     (S.  F.) 
Sinker,  n.     See  Deadhead. 
Sinker  boat.     See  Catamaran. 
Siwash.     .See  Side  hne  logs,  to;  Jackpot. 
Skeleton  log  car.     A  car  having  a  skeleton  frame.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   connected  truck.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Skid,  V.     1.    To  draw  logs  from  the  stump  to  the  skid  way,  landing  or  miU. 
(Gen.) 


504  APPENDIX 

83-11.:   snake,  twitch,  yard.     (N.  W.) 

2.   As  applied  to  a  road,  to  reinforce  by  placing  logs  or  poles  across  it. 
Skid,  n.     A  log  or  pole,  commonly  used  in  pairs,  upon  which  logs  are  han- 
dled or  piled  (Gen.);    or  the  log  or  pole  laid  transversely  in  a  skid  road. 
(P.  C.  F.) 
Skidder,  n.     1.    One  who  skids  logs.     (Gen.) 

2.  A  steam  or  electrically  driven  device  operating  on  or  near  a  railroad 
track,  which  skids  logs  by  means  of  a  cable.  Three  general  systems  are  in 
use;  the  cable- way  or  overhead  system,  the  chief  distinguishing  feature 
of  which  is  a  cable  suspended  between  a  head-spar  tree  and  a  tail  tree,  on 
which  travels  a  trolley  from  which  cables  run  that  wholly  or  partially  ele- 
vate the  log  above  the  ground;  the  slack-rope  system,  a  ground  system  in 
which  the  skidding  cable  is  returned  to  the  logs  by  a  smaller  cable  called 
a  haul  back;  the  snaking  system,  a  ground  system  in  which  the  skidding 
line  is  pulled  out  by  an  animal.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   steam  skidder. 

3.  The  foreman  of  a  crew  which  constructs  skid  roads.     (P.  C  F.) 

4.  See  Bummer. 

Skidding  chain.     A  heavy  chain  used  in  skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 
Skidding  hooks.     See  Skidding  tongs. 
Skidding  sled.     See  Dray. 

Skidding  tongs.     1.    A  pair  of  hooks  attached  by  links  to  a  ring  and  used  for 
skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:    dogs,  grabs,  grapples,  grips,  head  grabs,  skidding  hooks. 
2.    Tongs  used  in  skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 
Skidding  trail.     See  Gutter  road. 
Skid  grease.     See  Chute  grea.se. 
Skid  greaser.     See  Greaser. 

Skid-off,  n.     A  launching  way  for  lumber  rafts.     (S.  F.) 
Skid  road.     1.    A  road  or  trail  leading  from  the  stump  to  the  skidway  or 
landing.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  travois  road.     (N.  F.) 

2.    A  road  over  which  logs  are  dragged,  having  heavy  transverse  skids 
partially  sunk  in  the  ground,  usually  at  intervals  of  about  5  feet.    (P.  C.  F.) 
Skid  up,  to.     1.    To  level  or  reinforce  a  logging  road  by  the  use  of  skids. 
(Gen.) 
2.   To  collect  logs  and  pile  them  on  a  skidway.     (Gen.) 
Skidway,  n.     Two  skids  laid  parallel  at  right  angles  to  a  road,  usually  raised 
above  the  ground  at  the  end  nearest  the  road.     Logs  are  usually  piled 
upon  a  skidway  as  they  are  brought  from  the  stump  for  loading  upon 
sleds,  wagons  or  cars.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   yard.     (N.  W.) 
Skidway,  to  break  a.     To  roll  piled  logs  off  a  skidway.     (Gen.) 
Skip  the  grabs,  to.     To  release  the  skidding  grabs  from  the  log  by  means  of  a 

grab  skipi)er.     (App.) 
Skipper,  n.     1.    A  sledge  hammer  with  pointed  ends  which  is  used  to  pry 
skidding  tongs  loose  from  logs.     (App.)     See  Grab  skipper. 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  505 

Skipper  road.     A  skid  road  on  which  poles  are  placed  zigzag  across  the  road, 

the  angle  between  skids  being  about  60  degrees;   or  a  road  on  which  poles 

are  jilaced  transversely  at  intervals  of  from  4  to  6  feet.     (App.) 
Sky  hooker.     See  Top  loader. 
Skyline,  n.     The  cable  suspended  between  the  head-spar  tree  and  the  tail 

tree  in  cableway  logging,  on  which  the  trolley  travels.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Svn. :   aerial  line,  main  hne,  standing  line,  track  cable. 
Skyline  logging.     Logging  with  a  cableway  skidder.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Slab  tie.     The  third  tie  made  from  a  stick  of  timber  too  small  to  make  four 

ties  and  too  large  to  make  two  ties.     (S.  F.) 
Slack  puller.     1.    A  power-operated  device  on  an  overhead  steam  skidder 

which  pulls  slack  out  of  the  skidding  Une  when  the  trolley  has  been  run  out 

to  the  desired  point  in  the  rim.     (Gen.) 

2.   One  who  pulls  slack  on  the  skidding  line  of  an  overhead  steam  skidder. 

(S.  F.) 
Slack-rope  system.     A  system  of  power  logging  in  which  the  main  skidding 

calile  is  returned  from  the  machine  to  the  logs  by  means  of  a  smaller  cable 

knowTi  as  the  "  haul  back  "  or  messenger.     (Gen.) 
Slack  water.     L    In  river  driving,  the  temporary  slackening  of  the  current 

caused  by  the  formation  of  a  jam.     (Gen.) 
2.   Low  water  or  dead  water.     (N.  W.) 
Slant  dam.     See  Rafter  dam. 

Slash,  n.     1.    The  debris  left  after  logging,  wind  or  fire.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   slashing. 
2.    Forest  land  which  has  been  logged  off  and  upon  which  the  limbs  and 

top.s  remain,  or  which  is  deep  in  debris  as  the  result  of  fire  or  wind.     (Gen.) 
Slash  boards.     See  Splash  boards. 
Slashing,  n.     See  Slash. 
Sled  tender.     1     One  who  assists  in  loading  and  unloading  logs  or  skidding 

with  a  dray.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:   chainer  (L.  S.),  chain  tender,  chaser,  frogger. 
Sleigh.     See  Logging  sled. 
Slide,  n.     A  trough  built  of  logs  or  timber,  used  to  transport  logs  down  a 

slope.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   chute,  dry  slide,  sHp. 
Slide  tender.     One  who  keeps  a  sUde  in  repair.     (Gen.) 
Slip,  n.     See  Slide. 
Slip  grab.     A  pear-shaped  link  attached  by  a  swivel  to  a  skidding  evener  or 

whifHetree,  through  which  the  skidding  chain  is  pa.ssed.     The  chain  runs 

freely  when  the  shp  grab  is  held  sideways,  but  catches  when  the  grab  is 

straight.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   grab  link. 
Slip  man.     See  Pond  man. 
Slipper,  n.     See  Rosser. 
Slip  skids.     See  Glisse  skids. 
Slip-tongue  cart.     A  special  form  of  logging  wheels  used  for  transporting  logs. 

(S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.)     See  Logging  wheels. 


506  APPENDIX 

Sloop,  /(.     1.    A  single  pair  of  long  sled  runners,  ctiuipped  with  a  tongue  and 

bunks  on  which  short  logs  are  loaded.     Used  cliicfly  in  farming  communities. 

(N.  W.) 
2.   -Sec  Bob. 
Sloop  logs,  to.     To  haul  logs  do\vn  steep  slopes  on  a  dray  or  sloop  equipped 

with  a  tongue.     (N.  F.) 
Slough  pig.     Usually  a  second-rate  river  driver  who  is  assigned  to  picking 

logs  out  of  sloughs  in  advance  of  the  rear.     (N.  F.) 
Sluice,  V.     1.   See  Flume. 

2.  To  float  logs  through  the  sluiceway  of  a  splash  dam.     (N.  F.) 

3.  See  Splash. 

4.  See  Hand  sluice. 
Sluice,  n.     See  Flume. 

Sluice  gate.     The  gate  closing  a  sluiceway  in  a  splash  dam.     (Gen.) 

Sluiceway,  n.     The  opening  in  a  splash  dam  through  which  logs  pass.     (Gen.) 

Snag,  71.     1.    A  standing  tree  stem  from  which  the  crown  has  been  broken. 
(Gen.)     See  Ram  pike. 
Syn.:  stub. 
2.   A  sunken  log  or  a  submerged  stump.     (Gen.) 

Snake,  v.     See  Skid. 

Snaking  system.  A  system  of  power  logging  in  which  the  main  cable  is  re- 
turned to  the  woods  by  an  animal.     (Gen.) 

Snaking  trail.     .See  Gutter  road. 

Snatch  team.     See  Tow  team. 

Snib,  V.  In  river  driving,  to  be  carried  away  purposely,  but  ostensibly  by 
accident,  on  the  first  portion  of  a  jam  that  moves;  to  ride  away  from  work 
under  guise  of  being  accidentally  carried  off.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Snipe,  V.     See  Nose. 

Sniper,  n.     One  who  noses  logs  before  they  are  skidded.     (Gen.) 

Snow  a  road,  to.  To  cover  bare  spots  in  a  logging  road  with  snow,  to  facili- 
tate the  passage  of  sleds.     (N.  F.) 

Snow  slide,  A  temporary  slide  on  a  steep  slope,  made  by  dragging  a  large 
log  through  deep  snow  which  is  soft  or  thawing;  when  frozen  solidly,  it 
may  be  used  to  sUde  logs  to  a  point  where  they  can  be  reached  by  sleds. 
(N.  W.) 

Snub,  V.  To  check,  usually  by  means  of  a  snub  line,  the  speed  of  logging 
sleds  or  logs  on  steep  slopes,  or  of  a  log  raft.     (Gen.) 

Snubber,  n.  A  device  consisting  of  a  drum  or  drums,  controlled  by  powerful 
hand  or  power  brakes,  or  both,  which  is  used  in  lowering  logs  or  log  cars  on 
steep  grades,  by  means  of  a  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Snub  line.  1.  A  rope  or  cable  attached  to  the  rear  bunk  of  a  logging  sled  used 
to  control  the  speed  on  steep  grades.     (N.  W.) 

2.   A  wire  rope  used   with  a  donkev  for  snubbing  logs,   or  log  cars. 
(P.  C.  F.) 

Snub  yoke.  The  wheelers  in  an  ox  team.  (App.,  S.  F.)  See  Butt  team; 
^^Tleelers. 

Softwood,  a.     As  applied  to  trees  and  logs,  needle-leafed,  coniferous.     (Gen.) 

Softwood,  n.     A  coniferous  tree.     (Gen.) 


TERMS  USED   IN  LOGGING  507 

Solid  jam.     1.    In  river  driving,  a  jam  formed  solidly  and  extending  from 
bank  to  bank  of  a  stream.     (N.  ¥.) 

2.   A  drive  is  said  to  be  "  in  a  solid  jam  "  when  the  stream  is  full  of  logs 
from  the  point  to  which  the  rear  is  cleared  to  the  mill,  sorting  jack  or  storage 
boom.     (N.  F.) 
Sorting  boom.     A  strong  boom  used  to  guide  logs  into  the  sorting  jack,  to 

both  sides  of  which  it  is  usually  attached.     (Gen.) 
Sorting  gap.     See  Sorting  jack. 

Sorting  jack.     A  raft,  secured  in  a  stream,  through  an  opening  in  which  logs 
pass  to  be  sorted  by  their  marks  and  diverted  into  pocket  booms  or  the 
downstream  channel.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :   sorting  gap. 
Sound  knot.     A  knot  which  is  sohd  across  its  face,  as  hard  as  the  surrounding 

wood,  and  so  fixed  that  it  will  retain  its  place  in  the  piece.     (Gen.) 
Spanish  windlass.     A  device  for  moving  heavy  objects  in  logging.     It  con- 
sists of  a  rope  or  chain,  within  a  turn  of  wliich  a  lever  is  inserted  and  power 
gained  by  twisting.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :   twister. 
Spar  tree.     See  Head-spar  tree. 
Spider.     See  Set  gauge. 
Spiked  skid.     A  skid  in  which  spikes  are  inserted  in  order  to  keep  logs  from 

shding  back  when  being  loaded  or  piled.     (Gen.) 
Spike  knot.     A  knot  sawed  in  a  lengthwise  direction.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:    horn  knot,  mule-ear  knot,  .slash  knot.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Spike  peddler.     One  who  deUvers  spikes  to  spikers  in  a  railroad  track-laying 

crew.     (S.  F.) 
Splash,  V.     To  drive  logs  by  releasing  a  head  of  water  confhied  by  a  spla.sh 
dam.     (Gen.) 

Sj'n.:   flood,  sluice. 
Splash  boards.     1.    Boards  placed  temporarily  on  top  of  a  rolling  dam  to 
heighten  the  dam,  and  thus  to  increase  the  head  of  water  available  for  river 
driving.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:  slash  boards.     (N.  W.) 

2.    A  false  gate  placed  on  the  upstream  side  of  a  lift  gate  as  an  aid  in 
raising  the  latter.     (N.  W.) 
Splash  dam.     A  dam  built  to  store  a  head  of  water  for  driving  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   cut-away  dam  (E.  C.),  flood  dam.     (Gen.) 
Splicer,  7i.     One  who  splices  cables  on  a  logging  operation.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Split  roof.     A  roof  of  a  logging  camp  or  barn  made  by  laying  strips  split 
from  straight-grained  timber.     The  strips  run  from  the  ridge  pole  to  the 
eaves,  and  break  the  joints  with  other  strips,  as  in  a  shingle  roof.     (N.  F.) 
Spool  donkey.     A  donkey  engine  equipped  with  a  spool  or  capstan,  instead  of 
a  drum.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Syn.:   dolbeer  (Cal.),  gypsy  yarder,  donkey. 
Spool  tender.     1.   One  who  guides  the  cable  on  a  spool  donkey.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.    One  who  operates  the  loading  drum  on  a  donkey.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Spot,  V.     1.   See  Blaze. 

2.    To  place  logging  cars  at  a  loading  point  or  opposite  a  landing.     (S.  F., 
P.  C.  F.) 


508  APPENDIX 

Spotting  line.  A  cable  by  which  a  log  loader  or  power  skidder  moves  itself 
for  short  distances;  also  a  line  used  to  pull  emptj-  log  cars  into  position  for 
loading.     (S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 

Sprag.     See  Gooseneck. 

Spreader,  n.     1.   A  stout  stick  which  holds  apart  the  free  ends  of  two  chains 
which  are  attached  to  a  large  ring.     The  term  is  often  appUed  to  the  en- 
tire rig.     The  spreader  is  used  in  skidding  on  rough  bottom  or  on  steep 
grades  in  place  of  a  doubletree.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   equalizer,  stretcher. 

2.   A  piece  of  steel  rail  used  to  separate  the  loading  hooks  in  loading  with 
a  gin  pole.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Spring  board.     A  short  board,  shod  at  one  end  with  an  iron  calk,  which  is 
inserted  in  a  notch  cut  in  a  tree,  on  which  the  faller  stands  while  felhng 
the  tree.     (P.  C.  F.)     See  Bucking  Board. 
Syn. :   chopping  board. 

Spring  pole.  1.  A  springy  pole  attached  to  the  tongue  of  a  logging  sled 
and  passing  over  the  roll  and  under  the  beam,  for  holding  the  weight  of 
the  tongue  off  the  horses'  necks.     (N.  F.) 

2.    A  device  for  steadying  a  cross-cut  saw,  so  that  one  man  can  use  it 
instead  of  two.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Sprinkler,  n.  A  large  wooden  tank  from  which  water  is  sprinkled  over 
logging  roads  during  freezing  weather  in  order  to  ice  the  surface.  (N.  W., 
L.  S.) 

Syn. :   ice  box,  tank,  water  box. 

Sprinkler  sleds.  The  sleds  upon  which  the  sprinkler  is  mounted.  They 
consist  of  two  sleds  whose  runners  turn  up  at  each  end,  fastened  together 
by  cross  chains,  and  each  having  a  pole,  in  order  that  the  sprinkler  may 
be  hauled  in  either  direction  without  turning  around.     (N.  F.) 

Spud,  n.     1.   A  tool  for  removing  bark.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :   barking  iron. 
2.   See  Stump  spud. 

Spudder,  n.    See  Barker. 

Spur,  n.     A  branch  logging  railroad.     (Gen.) 

Stag,  V.  To  cut  off  trousers  at  the  knee,  or  boots  at  the  ankle.  (N.  F., 
P.  C.  F.) 

Stamping  hammer.     See  Marking  hammer. 

Standard,  n.     See  Market. 

Standard  knot.     1.   A  knot  that  is  sound  and  not  over  1|  inches  in  diameter. 
(S.  F.) 
Syn.:   tight  knot.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.    In  hardwoods  and  cypress,  a  knot  that  is  not  more  than  1^  inches  in 
diameter. 

Standard  lengths.  Lengths  into  which  rough  lumber  is  cut  for  general  use. 
The  standard  lengths  in  southern  yellow  pine  are  multiples  of  2  feet,  from 
4  to  24  feet  inclusive.  In  surfaced  products,  such  as  flooring,  ceiling,  drop 
siding,  and  like  material,  the  standard  lengths  range  in  multiples  of  1  foot, 
from  4  to  20  feet  inclusive.  Hardwood  standard  lengths  run  from  4  to 
16  feet  inclusive.  In  the  province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  the  standard  lengths 
are  12  and  13  feet. 


TERMS  USED  IN  LOGGING  509 

Standing  line.    See  Skj'^line. 

Start,  n.     A  pin  or  pins  fastened  to  the  runners  of  a  dray  and  holding  in  place 

the  upper  removable  bar  or  bunk.     (N.  W.) 
Starting  bar.     See  Gee  throw. 
Stay  boom.     A  boom  fastened  to  a  main  boom  and  attached  upstream  to 

the  shore  to  give  added  strength  to  the  main  boom.     (Gen.) 
Steam  bucking  saw.     A  portable  steam-driven  saw  used  for  bucking  logs  at 

the  landing.     (Gal.) 
S3-n. :   drag  saw. 
Steam  dago.     A  power-driven  log  bucking  device.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Steam  hauler.     A  geared  steam  tractor  used  to  haul  loaded  logging  sleds  over 

an  iced  road.     It  is  equipped  with  a  spiked  metal  belt  wliich  runs  over 

sprocket  wheels  replacing  the  driving  wheels,  and  is  guided  bj'  a  sled,  turned 

by  a  steering  wheel,  upon  wliich  the  front  end  rests.     (N.  F.) 
Steam  jammer.     See  Steam  loader. 
Steam  loader.     A  machine  operated  by  steam  and  used  for  loading  logs  upon 

cars.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   loader,  steam  jammer. 
Steam  skidder.     See  Skidder. 

Steel  crew.     The  crew  which  lays  and  takes  up  railroad  track.     (Gen.) 
Stem  winder.     See  Corkscrew. 
Still  water.     That  part  of  a  stream  having  such  slight  fall  that  no  current 

is  apparent.     Ant.:   quickwater.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   deadwater. 
Stock,  n.     The  handle  of  a  cant  hook  or  peavey.     (App.) 
Stock  logs,  to.     To  deliver  logs  from  stump  to  mill  or  raUroad.     (S.  F.) 
Stog,  V.     See  Chink. 
Storage  boom.     A  strong  boom  used  to  hold  logs  in  storage  at  a  sawmill. 

(Gen.) 
Syn. :   holding  boom,  receiving  boom. 
Stow  logs,  to.     In  rafting,  to  place  logs  together  and  parallel  mthin  boom 

sticks  which  mark  the  outside  of  the  raft  section.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Straight  line.     The  direct  attachment  of  a  pulling  cable  from  a  donkej'  engine 

to  a  log  without  the  use  of  block  and  tackle.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Straw  boss,  n.     A  subforeman  in  a  logging  camp.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Syn.:   head  push. 
Stray.     1.    A  marked  log  passing  through  the  sorting  gap  of  a  boom  company 

and  about  the  disposition  of  which  there  have  been  no  instructions  given. 

(L.  S.) 

2.  A  log  which  has  passed  the  mill  where  it  should  have  been  taken  from 
the  water.     (N.  F.,  E.  C.) 

3.  See  Prize  log. 

Straw  line.     In  power  skidding,  a  small  cable  which  is  used  in  changing  the 
skidding  lines  from  one  run  to  another.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   gra.ss  hne. 
Stream  jam.     See  Center  jam. 
Stretcher.     See  Spreader. 
Stringer  road.     1.   See  Fore-and-aft  road. 


510  APPENDIX 

2.    A  tram  road  with  sawed  wooden  rails,  used  for  hauling  logs.     (App.) 

Strip,  V.     To  mark  off  strips  for  tie  hackers.     (R.  M.  F.) 

Strip,  71.     An  area  of  timber  designated  to  be  cut  by  a  tie  hacker.     (R.  M.  F.) 

Strip  road.  In  a  crosstie  operation,  a  road  cut  out  by  the  tie  hacker  on  a 
given  strip  so  that  the  haulers  can  reach  the  ties.     (R.  M.  F.) 

Stub.    See  Snag. 

Stull,  71.  A  timber  used  in  a  mine  to  support  the  sides  and  roofs  of  the  pass- 
ages.    (Gen.)     See  Mine  prop;  Prop. 

Stumpage,  n.  The  value  of  timber  as  it  stands  uncut  in  the  woods;  or,  in 
a  general  sense,  the  standing  timber  itself.     (Gen.) 

Stump  roller.     See  Road  roller. 

Stump  spool.     See  Road  roller. 

Stump  spud.     A  tool  with  a  crowbar  point  on  one  end  and  a  small  spoon-like 
shovel  on  the  other  end,  used  in  digging  holes  under  stumps,  preparatory 
to  placing  a  blasting  charge.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  spud. 

Sulky.     See  Logging  wheels. 

Swamp,  V.  To  clear  the  ground  of  underbrush,  fallen  trees,  and  other  ob- 
structions preparatory  to  constructing  a  logging  road,  opening  out  a  gutter 
road,  skidding  with  animals,  or  yarding  with  a  donkey  engine.     (Gen.) 

Swamper,  n.     1.    One  who  swamps.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   beaver,  busher,  gutterman.     (N.  F.) 

2.  One  who  walks  behind  a  horse  truck  loaded  with  logs  and  applies  the 
brake.     (Cal.) 

3.  See  Gopher. 

4.  See  Chore  boy. 

Swamp  hook.     A  large,  single  hook  on  the  end  of  a  chain,  used  in  handling 
logs,  in  skidding  and  in  loading  with  a  crosshaul.     (Gen.) 
S.vn.:   jam  hook.     (N.  W.) 
Sway  bar.     1.    A  strong  bar  or  pole,  two  of  which  couple  and  hold  in  position 
the  front  and  rear  bunks  of  a  logging  sled.     They  are  provided  with  a 
knuckle  joint  which  permits  the  bunks  to  be  jackknifed  when  the  sleds  are 
travehng  empty.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   side  pole. 

2.    The  bar  used  to  couple  together  two  logging  cars.     (Gen.) 
Sweep,  n.     The  natural  crook  in  a  log.     (Gen.) 

Sweeps,  n.     Trees  overhanging  a  stream  which  impede  log  driving.     (E.  C.) 
Sweep  the  rear,  to.     See  Sack  the  rear,  to. 
Swell  butted.     As  applied  to  a  tree,  greatly  enlarged  at  the  base.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:   bottle  butted,  churn  butted. 
Swifter,  n.     1.    Logs  which  are  placed  across  the  end  of  a  raft  section  in  order 
to  prevent  the  logs  in  the  raft  from  having  too  much  play.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.   A  rope  or  cable  placed  across  the  end  of  the  first  tier  of  each  raft 
section  in  order  to  hold  the  boom  sticks  in  position.     Swifters  are  un- 
necessary where  there  are  permanent  booms  to  hold  the  raft  sticks  in  place. 
(P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   cinch  line. 
Swing,  V.     See  Gun. 


TERMS  USED   IN   LOGGING  511 

Swing  dingle.     A  single  sled  with  wood-shod  runners  and  a  tongue  with 
lateral  play,  used  in  hauUng  logs  down  steep  slopes  on  bare  ground.    (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   loose-tongued  sloop. 

Swing  donkey.  A  donkey  engine  stationed  between  the  yarding  engine  and 
the  road  engine  or  railroad.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Swing  team.  In  a  logging  team  of  six,  the  pair  between  the  leaders  and  the 
butt  team.     (Gen.) 

Swing  yoke.  In  an  ox  team  of  three  or  more  yokes,  the  pairs  between  the 
leaders  and  the  wheelers.     (App.,  S.  F.)     See  Swing  team. 

Tag  chain.     See  Cross  chain. 

Tag  line.  In  yarding  with  a  donkey  engine,  an  extra  cable  used  for  various 
I)urposes.  It  may  serve  as  an  extension  to  the  main  cable  in  order  to  reach 
logs  beyond  the  range  of  the  pulling  line;  also  it  may  be  used  to  attach  a 
block  to  a  log  or  serve  some  similar  purpose.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Tail  chain.  A  brake  consisting  of  a  heavy  chain  bound  around  the  traihng 
end  of  logs,  used  to  check  the  speed  of  sleds  on  steep  slopes.     (N.  W.) 

Tail-down,  to.     To  roll  logs  on  a  skidway  to  a  point  on  the  skids  where  they 
can  be  easily  reached  by  the  loading  crew.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   tail-in.     (S.  F.) 

Tail  end.     See  Rear. 

Tailer-in,  n.     One  who  tails  down  for  a  loading  crew.     (S.  F.) 
Syn.:   roll-down  man.     (S.  F.) 

Tail  grab.     See  Single  coupler. 

Tail  hold.  1.  A  means  of  obtaining  increased  power  in  moving  a  log  by 
tackle.  The  cable  is  passed  through  a  block  attached  to  the  log  and  the 
end  fastened  to  a  stationary  object,  so  that  hauling  on  the  other  end  gives 
twice  the  power  which  would  be  attained  by  direct  attachment  of  the 
cable  to  the  log.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.    The  attachment  of  the  rear  end  of  a  donkey  .sled,  usually  to  a  tree 
or  .stump.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Tail  hook.     See  Dog. 

Tail-in,  to.     See  Tail-down,  to. 

Tail  tree.  In  power  skidding,  a  tree  at  the  end  of  a  nm  to  which  the  tackle 
is  fastened.     (S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 

Takoma.     See  Roader. 

Tally  board.  A  thin,  smooth  board  used  by  a  scaler  to  record  the  number 
or  volume  of  logs.     (Gen.) 

Tally  man.  One  who  records  or  talhes  the  measurements  of  logs  as  they 
are  called  by  the  scaler.     (N.  F.) 

Tank,  n.     See  Sprinkler. 

Tank  conductor.  One  who  has  charge  of  the  crew  which  operates  a  sprinkler 
or  tank,  and  who  regulates  the  flow  of  water,  in  icing  logging  roads.     (N.  F.) 

Tank  heater.  A  sheet-iron  cy Under  extending  through  a  tank  or  sprinkler, 
in  which  a  fire  is  kept  to  prevent  the  water  in  the  tank  from  freezing  while 
icing  logging  roads  in  extremely  cold  weather.     (N.  F.) 

Tanking.     The  act  of  hauling  water  in  a  tank,  to  ice  a  logging  road.     (N.  F.) 

Tap  line.  A  chartered  logging  railroad  which  shares  with  the  trunk  line  rail- 
roads in  a  divi.sion  of  the  through  lumber  rate  to  market,  on  products  orig- 
inating at  the  plant  of  the  owners  of  the  logging  railroad.     (S.  F.) 


512  APPENDIX 

Team  boss.     One  who  has  charge  of  the  skidding  teams  in  a  logging  operation. 
(S.  F.) 
Syn.:  captain. 

Tee,  n.     A  strip  of  iron  about  6  inches  long  with  a  hole  in  the  center,  to  which 
a  short  chain  is  attached;  it  is  passed  through  a  hole  in  a  gate  plank,  turned 
crosswise,  and  so  used  to  hold  the  plank  when  tripped  in  a  splash  dam- 
(N.  W.) 
Syn.:  toggle.     (R.  M.  F.) 

Thousand  legs.     See  Corkscrew. 

Three-block  hold.     See  Block  hold. 

Throw,  V.     See  Wedge  a  tree,  to. 

Throw  line.     See  Trip  line. 

Throw  out.     See  Frog. 

Tide,  n.  A  freshet.  In  the  Appalachian  region  logs  are  rolled  into  a  stream 
and  a  "  tide  "  awaited  to  carry  them  to  the  boom.     (App.) 

Tie  chopper.     See  Tie  hacker. 

Tie  cutter.     See  Tie  hacker. 

Tie  hack.     See  Tie  hacker. 

Tie  maker.     .See  Tie  hacker. 

Tier,  n.  In  rafting,  the  group  of  parallel  logs  which  are  stowed  in  each  raft 
section.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Tight  knot.     See  Standard  knot. 

Timber,  n.  1.  A  term  which  may  have  any  of  the  following  meanings: 
wood  suitable  for  building  houses  and  ships,  and  for  use  in  carpentry  and 
joinery;  trees  cut  down  and  squared  or  capable  of  being  squared  or  cut  into 
beams,  rafters,  boards,  etc.;  growing  trees  suitable  for  constructive  pur- 
poses; trees  generally;  woods  or  a  single  piece  of  wood,  whether  suitable 
for  use  or  already  in  construction;  the  body,  stem,  or  trunk  of  a  tree. 
The  meaning  to  be  given  to  the  term  depends  upon  the  connection  in 
which  it  is  used  and  sometimes  upon  the  occupation  of  the  person  who  uses 
the  term.     (Supreme  Court  of  Georgia,  52  Southeastern  Reporter,  324.) 

2.  A  term  which  has  a  restricted  meaning  depending  on  the  connection 
in  which  it  is  employed.  It  may  refer  to  standing  trees  or  stems,  or  trunks 
of  trees  cut  and  shaped  for  use  in  the  erection  of  buildings  or  other  struc- 
tures and  not  manufactured  into  lumber,  within  the  ordinary  meaning  of 
"  lumber."  It  does  not  ordinarily  refer  to  the  articles  manufactured 
therefrom,  such  as  shingles,  lath,  fence  rails,  railroad  ties,  etc.  (Supreme 
Court  of  North  Carohna,  82  Southeastern,  1036.) 

Timber  beast.     See  Lumberjack. 

Timber  carrier.     .SVe  Lug  hooks. 

Timber  compass.     .See  Gun. 

Timber  contract.     See  Timber  right. 

Timber  grapple.     See  Lug  hooks. 

Timber  plugger.  One  who  surreptitiously  plugs  knot  holes  and  bad  knots, 
especially  on  spar  timber.     (S.  F.) 

Timber  right.     A  term  used  to  denote  the  purchase  of  standing  timber,  with- 
out the  acquisition  of  title  to  the  land      (Gen.) 
Syn. :  timber  contract. 


TERMS  USED  IX  LOGGING  513 

Timber  wheels.     See  Logging  wheels. 

Toe  piling.     Sharpened  poles  or  timbers  which  are  driven  next  to  the  up- 
stream face  of  the  mudsills  of  a  dam  to  prevent  water  from  getting  vmder 

the  foundations.     (Gen.) 
Syn  :   toe  spihng. 
Toe  ring.     The  heavy  ring  or  ferrule  on  the  end  of  a  cant  hook.     It  has  a 

\i\)  on  the  lower  edge  to  prevent  sUpping  when  a  log  is  grasped.     (Gen.) 
Toe  spiling.     See  Toe  pihng. 
Toggle,  n.     See  Toe. 
Toggle  chain.     1.    A  short  chain  with  a  ring  at  one  end  and  a  toggle  hook  and  a 

ring  at  the  other,  fastened  to  the  sway  bar  or  bunk  of  a  logging  sled  and  used 

to  regulate  the  length  of  a  binding  chain.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   bunk  chain. 
2.   See  Boom  chain. 
Toggle  hook.     A  grab  hook  with  a  long  shank,  used  on  a  toggle  chain.     (N.  F.) 
Tombstone,  n.     A  slab  torn  from  the  bole,  which  adheres  to  the  stump  when 

a  tree  is  felled.     (S.  F.) 
Tommy  Moore.     See  Bull  block. 

Tong,  r.     To  handle  logs  wnth  skidding  tongs.     (N.  F.) 
Tong  hooker.     1.    One  who  places  the  skidding  tongs  or  chokers  on  logs  which 

are  being  skidded  by  power  or  hauled  on  high-wheeled  carts.     (S.  F.) 
2.    Sec  Ground  loader. 
Tong  puller.     See  CJround  loader. 
Tong  unhook er.     One  stationed  near  the  power  skidder  who  releases  the 

skidding  tongs  or  removes  the  chokers  from  logs  which  have  been  drawn 

alongside  the  railroad.     (S.  F.) 
Top  bind  chains.     See  Top  chains. 
Top  chains.     Chains  used  to  secure  the  upper  tiers  of  a  load  of  logs  after  the 

capacity  of  the  regular  binding  chains  has  been  fUled.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   top  bind  chains.     fS.  F.) 
Top  load.     A  load  of  logs  piled  more  than  one  tier  high,  as  distinguished 

from  a  bunk  load.     (Gen.) 
Top  loader.     That  member  of  a  loading  crew  who  stands  on  the  top  of  a  load 

and  places  logs  as  they  are  sent  up.     (Gen  ) 
Syn.:  sky  hooker.     (N.  F.) 
Top-lop,  V.     See  Lop. 

Tote,  I'.     To  haul  supplies  to  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.) 
Tote  road.     A  road  used  for  hauhng  supplies  to  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:   fly  road,  hay  road. 
Tote  sled.     See  Jumper. 
Tow  team.     An  extra  team  stationed  at  an  incUne  in  a  logging  road  to  assist 

the  regular  teams  in  ascending  with  loaded  sleds.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   .snatch  team. 
Traction,  n.     An  oil  burning  or  a  gasohne  traction  engine  u.sed  in  hauling 

log  trucks.  (Cal.) 
Trail,  v.  See  Jigger. 
Trail,  n.     1.   See  Turn. 

2.   The  path  traveled  by  a  team  when  traiUng  logs  in  a  chute.     (R.  M.  F.) 


514  APPENDIX 

Trail  chute.     See  Trailing  slide. 
Trail  dogs.     See  Grapples. 

Trailers,  n.  Several  logging  sleds  hitched  one  behind  another  and  pulled  by 
from  4  to  8  horses  driven  by  one  man,  thus  saving  teamster's  wages;  also 
applied  to  sleds  or  wagons  drawn  by  a  steam  or  gasoHne  log  hauler.  (N.  F., 
E.  C.) 
Trailing  slide.  A  slide  on  which  the  grade  is  so  low  that  animals  are  required 
to  move  the  logs.     (App.) 

Syn.:   trail  chute.     (R.  IM.  F.) 
Trail  slide.     An  earth  skidding  trail,  reinforced  on  the  lower  side  by  n  fender 

skid.     (App.) 
Train,  n.     See  Turn. 
Tram,  n.     See  Tramway. 

Tramway,  n.     A  light  or  temporary  railroad  for  the  transportation  of  logs 
often  with  wooden  rails  and  operated  by  horse  power.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   tram. 
Trap  boom.     See  Catch  boom. 
Travois,  n.     See  Go-devil. 
Travois  road.     See  Skid  road. 
Trip,  ;'.     See  Wedge  a  tree,  to. 
Trip,  n.     See  Turn. 

Trip  a  dam,  to.     To  remove  the  planks  which  close  a  splash  dam.     (N.  F.) 
Trip  line.     1.    A  light  rope  attached  to  a  dog  hook,  used  to  free  the  latter 
when  employed  in  breaking  a  jam,  a  skidway  or  a  load.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   throw  hne. 
2.   See  Haul  back. 
Tripsin,  n.     A  timber  placed  across  the  bottom  of  the  sluiceway  in  a  splash 

dam,  against  which  rest  the  planks  by  which  the  dam  is  closed.     (Gen.) 
Trolley,  n.     A  traveling  block  used  on  a  skyline  in  steam  skidding.      (S.  F., 
P.  C.  F.) 

Syn.:    bicycle,  carriage  (S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.),  buggy.     (Cal.) 
Trough  roof.     A  roof  on  a  logging  camp  or  barn,  made  of  small  logs  split 
lengthwise,  hollowed  into  troughs  and  laid  from  ridge  pole  to  eaves.     The 
joints  of  the  lower  tier  are  covered  by  inverted  troughs.     (N.  F.) 
Truck,  n.     1.    A  heavy  wagon  used  to  haul  logs,  either  Avith  animal  or  jjower 
traction.     (Gen.) 

2.   See  Logging  truck. 
Truck  driver.     A  teamster  who  skids  logs  with  a  bummer. 
Tump  line.     Two  leather  straps  sewed  or  buckled  to  a  leather  head  strap 

about  four  inches  wide,  and  used  to  carry  packs.     (E.  C.) 
Turkey,  n.     A  bag  containing  a  lumberjack's  outfit.     To  "  histe  the  turkey  " 
is  to  take  one's  personal  belongings  and  leave  camp.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
See  Duffle  bag. 
Turn,  n.     1.    A  single  trip  and  return  made  by  one  team  in  hauling  logs  — 
e.g.,  a  four-turn  road  is  a  road  the  length  of  which  will  permit  only  four 
round  trips  per  day.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:   trip.     (Gen.) 

2.   Two  or  more  logs  coui)led  together  end  to  end  for  hauling.     (P.  C,  F.) 
Syn.:  trail,  train. 


TERMS  USED   IN   LOGGING  515 

Tum-around,  n.     A  cleared  area,   .surrounding  a  bunched  pile  of  logs,  in 

which  logging  wheels  turn.     (Texas.) 
Turner.     See  Log  roller. 
Turnout,  n.     A  short  side  road  from  a  logging-sled  road,  to  allow  loaded 

sleds  to  pass.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Twin  sled.    See  Logging  sled. 
Twister,  n.     1.   See  Spanish  windlass. 

2.   See  Camp  foreman. 
Twitch,  V.     See  Skid. 
Two-block  hold.     See  Block  hold. 
Two-faced  tie.     A  pole  tie  with  only  two  hewed  faces.     It  is  made  from  a 

stick  of  timber  too  small  to  hew  four  sides.     (S.  F.) 
Two  sled.     See  Logging  sled. 
Undercut,  v.     See  Notch. 
Undercut,  n.     The  notch  cut  in  a  tree  to  determine  the  direction  in  which  the 

tree  is  to  fall,  and  to  prevent  .spUtting.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   notch  (Gen.),  nick  (S.  F.),  box  (N.  F.). 
Undercut  hold.     A  method  of  arranging  the  choker  on  a  log  so  that  when  a 

forward  puU  is  exerted  the  log  will  roll  backward.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:   underhold  roll. 
Undercutter,  n.     \.    A  skilled  woodsrhan  who  chops  the  undercut  in  trees  so 

that  they  shall  fall  in  the  proper  direction.     (Gen.) 

2.    A  tool  used  to  support  the  back  of  a  cross-cut  saw  when  a  bucker  is 

making  a  cut  from  the  under  side  of  a  log.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Underhold  roll.     See  Undercut  hold. 
Union  drive.     A  drive  of  logs  belonging  to  several  owners,  who  share  the 

expense  pro  rata.     (N.  F.) 
Upright  roller.     See  Road  roUer. 
Value,  ('.     See  Cruise. 
Valuer,  n.     See  Cruiser. 
Van,  n.     1.    The  .small  store  in  a  logging  camp  in  which  clothing,  tobacco, 

and  medicine  are  kept  to  supply  the  crew.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.)     See  Commissary. 
Syn.:   wanigan.     (N.  W.) 

2.    Clothing  and  small  wares  supplied  to  woodsmen.     (E.  C.) 
Wagon  sled.     See  Logging  sled. 
Wane,  ??.     Bark  or  the  lack  of  bark  or  a  decrease  in  wood  from  any  cau.se  on 

the  edge  of  a  board,  plank,  or  timber.     (Gen.) 
Wanigan,  n.     1.    A  houseboat  u.sed  as  .sleeping  quarters  or  as  kitchen  and 

dining-room  by  river  drivers.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

2.  The  outfit  of  a  logging  crew,  especially  of  a  log-driving  crew.     (N.  W.) 

3.  See  Van. 

Warp,  V.     To  tow  a  boom  of  logs  ^\^th  a  headworks  or  alligator. 
Syn.:   kedge. 

Waste,  n.  On  a  logging  operation,  that  portion  of  the  tree  which  has  mer- 
chantable value,  but  is  not  utilized.  The  standard  varies  with  the  species, 
location  of  the  timber,  and  market  conditions.     (Gen.) 

Water  box.     See  Sprinkler. 

Water  buck.  One  who  packs  water,  either  for  a  logging  crew  or  for  a  donkey 
engine.     (Cal.) 


516  APPENDIX 

Water  ladder.     Pole  guides  up  and  dowTi  which  a  barrel  shdes  in  filling  a 

sprinkler  b}'  horse  power.     (X.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Water  slide.     See  Flume. 
Water  stain.     Streaks  or  patches  of  red  or  brown  discoloration  in  firm  wood 

of  hemlock. 
Water  streak.     A  dark  streak  in  oak  lumber  due  to  injury  to  the  standing 

timber.     (App.) 
Weaver's  bind.     A  method  of  binding  chain.s  around  logs  on  a  dray.     (N.  W.) 
Wedge  a  tree,  to.     To  topple  over  with  wedges  a  tree  that  is  being  felled. 

(Gen.) 
Syn.:   throw,  trip. 
Well,  n.     A  hole  dug  in  the  snow  surrounding  a  tree  in  order  that  the  chopper 

may  cut  the  tree  at  the  required  height.     (R.  IM.  F.) 
Wet  slide.     See  Flume. 

Wheel  camp.     1.   An  operation  in  which  the  logs  are  transported  to  the  skid- 
ways  on  logging  wheels.     (Cal.) 

2.   A  camp,    the  quarters  of  which  are  mounted  on  railroad   trucks. 

(P.  C.  F.) 
Wheelers,  n.     In  a  team,  the  pair  next  to  the  load.     (App.,  E.  C,  S.  F.). 

See  Snub  yoke. 
Syn.:    butt  team. 
Whiffletree  neckyoke.     A  heavy  logging  neckjoke,   to  the  ends  of  which 

short  whiffletrees  are  attached  by  rings.     From  the  ends  of  the  whiffletrees 

mde  straps  run  to  the  breeching,  thus  giving  the  team  added  power  in 

holding  back  loads  on  steep  .slopes.     (X.  F.) 
Whip-poor-will,  re.     A  small  log  fastened  diagonally  across  a  log  slide  and 

used  to  shunt  logs  onto  a  dump.     (App.) 
Syn.:   jumper. 
Whistle  boy.     One  who  transmits  orders  from  the  foreman  of  a  skidding  crew 

to  the  engineer  of  a  pullboat.      (S.  F.) 
Whistle  punk.     See  Signal  man. 
White  water.     See  Quick  water. 
White  water  man.     A  log  driver  who  is  expert  in  breaking  jams  on  rapids  or 

falls.     (X.  F.) 
Widow  maker.     1.    A  broken  hmb  hanging  loose  in  the  top  of  a  tree,  which 

in  its  fall  may  injure  a  man  below  (X.  F.);  or  a  breaking  cable  (P.  C.  F.). 
Syn.:   deadman.     (X.  W.) 

2.    A  tree  which  in  falHng  is  lodged  in  the  top  of  another.     (App.) 
Wigwam,  to  make  a.     In  felling  trees,  to  lodge  several  in  such  a  way  that 

they  support  each  other.     (X.  F.) 
Windfall,  re.     An  area  upon  which  the  trees  have  been  thrown  by  wind; 

also,  a  .single  tree  thrown  by  wind.  (Gen.) 
Syn.:  blow  down,  wind  slash. 
Windshake,  n.  See  Shake. 
Wind  slash.  See  WindfaU. 
Wind  splitter.  See  Peaker. 
Wing  dam.  See  Pier  dam. 
Wing  jam.     A  jam  which  is  formed  against  an  obstacle  in  the  stream  and 


TERMS  U.SED   IN   LOGGING  517 

slants  upstream  until  the  upper  end  rests  solidly  against  one  shore,  with 
an  open  channel  for  the  passage  of  logs  on  the  opposite  side.     (N.  F.) 

Woodboat,  ?i.  A  single  sled  with  two  skids  attached  by  their  forward  ends  to 
the  bunk,  and  with  their  rear  ends  dragging,  which  is  used  to  haul  cord- 
wood  off  of  steep  or  rocky  slopes.     (N.  W.) 

Wood  buck.     See  Wood  bucker. 

Wood  bucker.     One  who  cuts  wood  for  a  donkey,  road  engine,  or  other  power 
skidding  device.     (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.) 
Syn.:   wood  buck. 

Woodhick.     See  Lumberjack. 

Wood  passer.  One  who  transports  wood  fuel  in  a  flatboat  from  the  cutting 
point  to  a  puUboat.     (S.  F.) 

Woodpecker,  n.     A  poor  chopper.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:   beaver.     (N.  W.) 

Wrapper  chain.     See  Binding  chain. 

Yard,  v.     See  Skid;   Rank. 

Yard,  n.     See  Skidway;   LancUng. 

Yarding  donkey.  A  donkey  engine  mounted  upon  a  heavy  sled,  used  in 
•arding  logs  by  drum  and  cable  It  hauls  logs  from  the  stump  to  a  skid- 
road  or  to  a  lancUng,  for  short  distances  only.  See  Half-breed;  Roader; 
Donkey. 

Yarding  hook  tender.     See  Hook  tender. 

Yarding  sled.     See  Dray. 

Yarding  spool.     See  Road  roller. 

Yard  tender.     See  Decker. 

Yoke,  n.     The  heavy  U-shaped  part  of  a  block  by  wliich  the  block  is  attached 
to  an  object.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  gooseneck,  shackle. 


LOGGING   CAMP  KITCHEN   UTENSILS 


Table  X 

TABLE  AND   COOKING  UTENSILS 

Required  for  a  Northern  Camp  Feeding  Fifty  Men ' 


Table  Utensils 


Dinner  Plates 50 

Soup  Plates 50 

Coffee  and  Tea  Dippers  (1  pint)  50 

Forks 50 

Knives 50 

Table  Spoons 50 

Tea  Spoons 50 

Vegetable  Dishes,  6-inch 18 

Platters,  8-inch 9 


18 


Soup  Ladles 

Sugar  Bowls 

Bowls  for  Sauce  and  Pickles . 

Vinegar  Bottles 9 

Molasses  Jugs 9 

Pepper  Shakers 9 

Salt  Shakers 9 

Bumpers,  2  quart 18 

Bumpers,  1  quart 9 


Cooking  Utensils 
Roast  Pan,  17  X  17  X  4  inches, 

heavy  iron,  with  cover 1 

Biscuit  and  Cake  Pans 6 

Fry  Pan 1 

Bread  Tins 18 


Bean  Pots,  large 2 

Lard  Frying  Kettle  with  Drainer  1 

Beef  Boilers,  heavy 2 

Coffee  and  Tea  Boilers 2 

Kettles,  enamelled 2 

Wash  Boilers 1 

Pastry  Board 1 

Chopping  Bowl 1 

Lunch  Buckets 

Fireless  Cooker,  complete 1 

Meat  Chopper 1 

Water  Pails 3 

Mixing  Pans 2 

Dish  Pans,  large 2 

Butcher  Knives 1 

1  Reported  at  the  First  Annual    Conference  of  the    Woods  Department 
Berhn  Mills  Co.,  et  al,  Nov.  25  and  26,  1913. 

521  .» 


Chopping  Knives 

Dippers,  long  handled 
Dipper,  short  handled . 

Faucets 

Nutmeg  Grater 

Sieves 

Skimmers 

Mixing  Spoons 

Carving  Knife 

Bread  Knife 

Meat  Fork 

Doughnut  Cutter 

Biscuit  Cutter 

Rolling  Pin 

Meat  Cleaver 

Meat  Saw 

Flour  Sifter 

Grease  Brush 

Can  Opener 


522 


APPENDIX 


General  Utensils 


Cook  Stoves 2 

Brooms 

Alarm  Clock 1 

Kerosene  Oil  Cans 2 

Hanging  Lamps 12 

Hand  Lamps 1 

Lanterns 2 

Matches 


Towels 

Rags 

Scrubbing  Pails 2 

Mop  Wringers 2 

Mop  Handles 2 

Wash  Basin 1 

Wash  Board 1 

Pot  Glove  (or  cleaner) 1 


Soap Brush  for  pots,  etc. 


fB0r£K7T  LIBRARY 
i.  C  State  r  liege 


n>Fi:inT  LrsmAET 
N, 


ANIMAL  RATIONS 


Table  XI 
WOLFF-LEHMANN  FEEDING  STANDARDS^ 

[Showing  amounts  of  nutrients  per  1000  pounds  live  weight  for  one  day's  feeding.] 


Oxen:2 

At  rest  in  stall.  . 

At  light  work. . . 

At  medium  work 

At  heavy  work . . 
Horses 

At  light  work. .  . 

At  medium  work 

At  heavy  work . . 


Total 

dry 

matter 

Dige 

Protein 

Pounds 

Pounds 

18 
22 

25 

28 

0.7 
1.4 
2.0 

2.8 

20 
24 
26 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

Digestible  nutrients 


Carbohy- 
drates 


8.0 
10.0 

11.5 
13.0 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 


0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 


Calories* 

16,600 
22,500 
27,200 
32,755 

22,150 
26,700 
32,750 


>  From  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  by  E.  W.  Allen.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.'22,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  1901,  p.  12. 

2  For  an  unworked  ox  of  1000  pounds  weight,  the  standard  calls  for  0.78  pound  of  digestible  pro- 
tein, 8  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.1  pound  of  digestible  fat,  which  would  furnish 
16,600  calories  of  heat  and  energy.  When  heavily  worked  the  same  ox  would  require,  according  to 
the  standard,  food  with  four  times  as  much  protein  and  of  nearly  twice  the  fuel  value. 

'  The  value  of  food  to  produce  heat  for  the  body  and  energy  for  work  is  measured  in  calorics 
and  is  calculated  from  the  nutrients  digested.  The  fuel  value  of  one  pound  of  digestible  fat  is 
estimated  to  be  4230  calories  and  of  one  pound  of  digestible  protein  or  of  carbohydrates  about 
1860  calories.  The  total  value  of  ii  feeding  stuff  is  found  by  using  these  factors,  the  equivalents 
for  the  common  foods  being  given  on  pages  134  and  135. 

*  A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water  about 
4  degrees. 


525 


526 


APPENDIX 


Table  XII 

DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  FOOD  INGREDIENTS  IN   100 
POUNDS  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS^ 


Feeding  stuff 


Green  fodder: 

Corn  fodder  (average  of  all  va- 
rieties)   

Kafir-corn  fodder 

R)-e  fodder 

Oat  fodder 

Redtop,  in  bloom 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom 

Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom 

Timotlw,  at  different  stages.  . . 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Hungarian  grass 

Red  clover,  at  different  stages. 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa,  at  different  stages 

Cowpea 

Soy  bean 

Rape 

Corn  silage  (recent  analyses) 

Corn  fodder,  field  cured 

Corn  stover,  field  cured 

Hay  from  — 

Barley 

Oats .' 

Orchard  grass 

Redtop 

Timoth.y  (all  analyses) 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Hungarian  grass 

Meadow  fescue 

Mixed  grasses 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 

Red  clover 

Alsike  clover 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soy  bean 

Wheat  straw 

Hye  straw 

Oat  straw 

Soy-bean  straw 

Roots  and  tubers: 

Mangel-wurzels 

Turnips 

Ruta-bagas 

Carrots 


Total 

dry 

matter 


Pounds 

20.7 
27.0 
23.4 
37.8 
34.7 
27.0 
30.1 
38.4 
34.9 
28.9 
29.2 
19.3 
28.2 
16.4 
28.5 
14.3 
25.6 
57.8 
59.5 


89.4 
84.0 
90.1 
91.1 
86.8 
78.8 
92.3 
80.0 
87.1 
87.1 
84.7 
90.3 
90.3 
91.4 
91.6 
89.3 


90.4 
92.9 
90.8 
89.9 

9.1 
9.5 
11.4 
11.4 


Pounds 

1.10 
0.87 
2.05 
2.44 
2.06 
1.91 
1.49 
2.01 
2.66 
1.92 
3.07 
2.16 
3.89 
1.68 
2.79 
2.16 
1.21 
2.34 
1.98 

5.11 

4.07 

4.78 

4.82 

2.89 

4.76 

4.50 

4.20 

4.22 

6.16 

7.38 

8.15 

11.46 

10.49 

10.58 

10.79 

10.78 

0.37 

0.63 

1.20 

2.30 

1.03 
0.81 
0.88 
0.81 


Carboh\- 

dretes 


Pounds 

12.08 
13.80 
14.11 
17.99 
21.24 
15.91 
16.78 
21.22 
17.78 
15.63 
14.82 

9.31 
11.20 

8.08 
11.82 

8.65 
14.56 
32.34 
33.16 

35.94 
33.35 
41.99 
46.83 
43.72 
37.46 
51.67 
43.34 
43.26 
42.71 
38.15 
41.70 
41.82 
38.13 
37.33 
38.40 
38.72 
36.30 
40.58 
38.64 
39.98 

5.65 
6.46 
7.74 
7.83 


Pounds 

0.37 
0.43 
0.44 
0.97 
0.58 
0.58 
0.42 
0.64 
0.69 
0.36 
0.69 
0.44 
0.41 
0.25 
0.63 
0.32 
0.88 
1.15 
0.57 

1.55 
1.67 
1.40 
0.95 
1.43 
1.99 
1.34 
1.73 
1.33 
1.46 
1.81 
1.36 
1.48 
1.29 
1.38 
1.51 
1.54 
0.40 
0.38 
0.76 
1.03 

0.11 
0.11 
0.11 
0.22 


•  From  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  by  E.  W.  Allen.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  1901,  p.  8. 


ANIMAL  RATIONS 


527 


Table  XII 

DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  FOOD   INGREDIENTS   IN   100 
POUNDS  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  —  Contiyiued. 


Grains  and  other  seeds: 

Corn  (average  of  dent  and  flint) 

Kafir  corn 

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Wheat  (all  varieties) 

Cottonseed  (whole) 

Mill  products: 

Corn  meal 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Barley  meal 

Ground  corn  and  oats,  equal 
parts 

Pea  meal 

Waste  products: 

Rye  bran 

Wheat  bran,  all  analyses 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  shorts 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Cottonseed  feed 

Cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed  hulls 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) .  .  .  . . 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 


Total 
dry 

matter 


Pounds 


81.1 
87.5 
89.1 
89.0 
88.4 
89.5 
89.7 


85.0 
84.9 

88.1 

88.1 
89.5 

88.2 
88.5 
84.0 
88.2 
88.5 
88.2 
92.0 
91.8 
88.9 
90.8 
9&.] 


7.14 
5.78 
8.G9 
9.25 
9.12 
10.23 
11. OS 

6.20 
4.76 
7.36 

7.01 
16.77 

11.47 
12.01 
12.79 
12.22 
19.29 
22.34 

9.65 
37.01 

1.05 
28.76 
30.59 


Carbohy- 
drate.? 


Pounds 

66.12 
53.58 
64.83 
48.34 
69.73 
69.21 
33.13 

65.26 
60.06 

62.88 

61.20 

51.78 

52.40 
41.23 
53.15 
49.98 
31.65 
36.14 
38.57 
16.52 
32.21 
32.81 
38.72 


I'ound.' 

4.97 
1.33 
1.60 
4.18 
1.36 
1.68 
18.44 

3.50 
2.94 
1.96 

3.87 
0.65 

1.79 
2.87 
3.40 
3.83 
4.56 
6.21 
3.37 
12.58 
1.S9 
7.06 
2.90 


Calories 

157,237 
116,022 
143,499 
124,757 
152,400 
154,848 
160,047 

147,797 
132,972 
138,918 

143,202 
130,246 

126,352 
111,138 
136,996 
131,855 
113,992 
134,979 
103,911 
152,653 
69,839 
144.313 
141,155 


528 


APPENDIX 


Table  XIII 
RATIONS   ACTUALLY    FED   TO   HORSES   AND   DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIENTS  AND  ENERGY  IN  RATIONS  CALCULATED  TO 
A  BASIS  OF  1000  POUNDS  LIVE  WEIGHTi 


Kind  of  horses 


Arm  II  horsr.i- 
United  States: 
Cavalry 


Artillery . 
Mules . . . . 


Farm  hnrses 
General   average   for 
moderate  work. 


Farm   mules,   Virginia 
Station. 


Average  of  6,  includ- 
ing above. 


Horses  with  severe  work. 
Truck  and  draft  horses: 
Chicago,  III.,  daily  ra- 
tion. 
South  Omaha,  Neb... 


Average  of  5,  includ- 
ing above. 


Feeding  standards  and 

average  rations. 
American  experiments. 
Horses  with  light  work 

Driving  horses 

General  average 

Horses  with  moderate 
work: 
Express  and  cab  horses 

Farm  horses 

General  average 

Mules    with    moderate 

work:  Farm  mules. 
Horses  with  severe  work 
Truck     and     draft 
horses. 


10.50  ' 
1125  ( 
1025^ 


1500. 
1500  < 


Rations 

actually 

fed  " 


Oats,  12. 
Hav,  14. 
Oats,  12. 
Hav,  14. 
Oats,  9.. 
Hav,  14. 


Hav,  15  2 
Corn,  10.5. 
Corn  silage 
10.5 


Oats,  7.5. 
Hay,  20.  . 
Oats,  15 .  . 
Hay,  12 


Nutrients  in  ra 

tion  per  1000 

pounds  live 

weight 


■  2.14 
■2.00 
■1 
2. 38 


Digestible  nu- 
trients in  rations 
per  1000  pounds 
live  weight 


'  From  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding,  by  C.  F.  Langworthy.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  170,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  1903,  p.  31. 
2  The  standard  salt  allowance  is  2  ounces  weekly. 


ANIMAL  RATIONS 


529 


Table  XIV 
RATIONS   FED   BY   LOGGERS 


Horses: 
Heavy  work  at  a 
sawmill,  Canada 


Maine  logging  oi> 
eration. 


Mules: 

Louisiana    logging 
operation. 


Missouri      logging 
operation. 


Oxen. 
Missis.sippi  logging 
operation. 


Alabama     logging 
operation. 

Louisiana   logging 
operation. 


15  pounds  hay. 

10  pounds  ground  grain. 

1  pound  bran. 

8  pounds  oats. 

10|  pounds  corn. 
12  pounds  oats. 
20  pounds  hay. 


13|  pounds  corn-alfalfa, 
5  pounds  chops. 
16  pounds  hay. 

S  pounds  oats. 

7  pounds  corn. 

20  pounds  hay. 


20  pounds  cottonseed  hulls. 
5  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 

10  pounds  hay. 

21  pounds  corn. 

Corn  fodder  (unlimited). 


26  pounds  corn. 
14  pounds  hay. 


Barley  1  to  1. 
Oats. 


Animals  weighing 
about  1600  pounds 
each. 


Animals  weighing 
about  1300  pounds 
each. 

Animals  weighing 
from  1200  to  1300 
pounds  each. 


Table  XV 
WEIGHT  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  PER  QUARTi 


Feeding  stuff 

Pound 

Ounces 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 
1 

12 
8 
6 

12* 

14 

10 
8 
2 

13 

10 

11 
3 
2 
8 

Wheat,  whole 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  bran,  coarse 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  middlings,  coarse 

Rve  bran 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed              .                  .  . 

Linseed  meal 

Cottonseed  meal 

'  From  The  Feeding  of  Farm  .\nimals,  by  E.  W.  Allen.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  p.  19,  Washington,  D.  C,  1901. 


nommm^f^y 


INDEX 

(Numbers  refer  to  pages.     Illustrations  arc  indicated  by  an  asterisk  after 
page  number.) 


Abutments,  for  improvement  of  stream  banks,  399,  399*. 
Acid-wood,  22. 

transport  in  flumes,  433,  436,  450. 
Acts,  Workmen's  Compensation,  57. 
Adirondack  Mountain  region,  length  of  logs  cut  in,  110. 
log  brands  in,  410. 
pulpwood  flume  in,  434. 
skidding  with  animals  in,  145. 
Aerial  tramways,  255. 

California,  2G0. 
Idaho,  258. 
Northwest,  256. 
Tennessee,  255. 
Alabama,  cars  and  locomotives  used  on  an  operation  in,  358. 
Alder,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 
Alligator  for  log  towing,  417. 
American  log  loader,  Model  C,  362*,  363. 

Model  D,  363. 
Angle  bar,  324,  324*,  325. 
Animal  draft,  129. 

for  headworks,  417. 
for  power  logging,  230. 
movement  of  earth  with,  302. 
wagons,  191. 
Animals,  barns  for,  67. 
Animals,  corrals  for,  69. 

decking  logs  with,  138. 
"drumming"  with,  149. 
feed  stuffs  for,  526. 
feediiiK  sf,;in(l;inls,  525. 
hand  logging  with,  145. 
hauhng,  buniiiicrs,  184. 
cars,  280,  281. 
carts,  189. 
pole  roads,  280. 
sleds,  177,  178. 
snow  plows,  171. 
sprinklers,  173. 
wagons,  190,  192. 
horses,  131. 

loading  log  cars  with,  360. 
mules,  132. 

output  per  team,  skidding,  156. 
oxen,  130. 

picking  rear  with,  416. 
rations  for,  132,  528. 

531 


532  INDEX 

Animals,  snaking  logs  with,  145. 
stables  for,  67. 

trips,  daily,  with  two  sleds,  178. 
water  for,  134. 
Appalachians,  chutes  in,  270. 

drumming  in,  149. 
hand  logging  in,  144. 
log  marks  and  brands  used  in,  411. 
slides  in,  262. 

snaking  with  animals  in,  146. 
stringer  railroads  in,  281,  282. 
Arkansas,  bummers  used  in,  184. 

railroad  spur  grade  in,  295,  295*. 
Arresters,  spark,  251,  350. 

locomotive,  350. 

Radley-Hunter,  351,  352* 
Sequoia,  351,  351*. 
power  skidder,  251. 

Boomerang,  251*,  252. 
South  Bend,  251,  251*. 
Ash,  7,  20. 

buoyancy  of,  413. 
lumber  cut,  1919,  20. 
stand,  by  regions,  7. 
per  acre,  20. 
United  States,  7. 
Aspen,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 
saw  timber,  stand,  by  regions,  7. 

United  States,  7. 
Assorting  gap,  403*,  405,  405*,  406*. 
Assorting,  log,  402,  405. 
Ax,  broad,  83,  83*. 
falling,  82,  83*. 
felling  timber  with,  106. 
handles  for,  82,  83. 
turpentine,  83,  83*. 
weight  of,  82,  83,  117. 


B 


Back  spiking,  railroad  track,  330. 

Bag  boom,  420. 

Ballast,  brush,  for  railroad  track,  321. 

Balsam,  buoyancy  of,  413. 

Bank,  breaking  down  a,  415. 

Banking  grounds,  414. 

Baptist  cone,  237. 

Barge  boom,  400,  402. 

Barge,  log,  430. 

Bark  mark,  410. 

Bark,  peeling  of,  99. 

Barking  or  rossing,  116. 

Barn-door  sluice  gate,  397. 

Barnhart  log  loader,  361. 

Barns,  board,  67. 

car,  67,  68,  68*. 

log,  63. 

size,  65,  67. 

tent,  67. 
Bars,  angle,  324,  324*,  325. 


INDEX  533 


Basswood,  19. 

Iniovancy  of,  412,  413. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  19. 
Bateaux,  413. 

Bear-trap  sluice  gate,  394,  394*. 
Beech,  7,  18. 

buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 

lumber  cut,  1920,  18. 

resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing, 

saw  timber,  stand,  by  regions,  7. 

United  States,  7. 
Bibliography,  455. 
Birch,  7,  18. 

buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 
paper,  19. 

per  cent  of  logs  lost  on  drives,  384. 
preparation  for  floating,  412. 
resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing, 
stand,  by  regions,  7. 
per  acre,  19. 
United  States,  7. 
Blacksmith  tools,  64. 
Blade,  saw,  84,  85. 
Blasting,  rock,  drilling,  304. 

explosives  for,  306,  310. 
loading  holes,  308. 
primers  and  priming  for,  308. 
safet.v  fuse  and  caps,  308. 
tamping,  310. 
stumps,  311. 
Boards,  spring,  92,  92*. 
Bob,  161. 

Bole,  utilization  of,  109,  113. 
Bolts,  shingle,  22. 

stave,  22. 
Bonus,  Brown's  Bay  System,  43,  44. 
felling  and  log-making,  47. 
task  system,  48. 
waste  elimination,  47. 
Boom,  bag  or  sack,  420. 
barge,  400,  402. 
bracket,  400,  401. 
catch,  416. 
chain,  400,  400*. 
companies,  408. 

Canada,  408. 
liability  of,  409. 
fin,  400,  401*. 
harbor,  426. 
limber,  400. 
plug,  400. 
round,  426. 
sheep-shank,  400. 
sheer,  400. 
sticks,  403.      . 
stiff,  400. 
storage,  403. 
towing,  400. 
trap,  416. 
Box,  flume  and  log  sluice,  433. 


534  INDEX 

Box,  flume  and  log  sluice,  square-box,  436. 

V-box,  434. 
Bracket  boom,  400,  401. 

Bracket  or  needle  gate,  logging  dam,  395,  397*. 
Brands,  log,  409,  410*. 

dehorning,  411. 
legal  status  of,  411. 
recording,  411. 
validity  of,  Minnesota,  411. 
Breakage  of  bole  in  felling,  47,  101. 
Bridge,  crib,  319,  319*. 
sled,  169. 
truss,  318. 
British  Columbia,  hand-logging  in,  145. 
Broad  gauge  railroad,  285. 

cars  for,  353. 

flat,  353. 

chains  for,  354. 
stakes  for,  353. 
skeleton,  354. 
trucks,  355. 
Brush,  ballast,  railroad,  321. 

disposal  of,  Colorado,  28. 

National  Forests,  28. 
Brutting,  144. 

Bucking  timber,  Northwest,  112. 
Bummer,  184,  185*. 
Bundles,  raft,  425,  425*. 
Bunks,  log  camp,  63,  70. 

log  car,  353,  354,  355. 


Cable,  aerial  tramway,  255,  256,  257,  259. 

cableway  skidder,  216,  217,  221,  223,  226. 
incline,  335,  336. 
loading,  366,  367. 
pullboats,  233. 
re-haul  skidder,  238. 
road  engine,  248. 
slack-rope  system,  233,  236,  238. 
snaking  machine,  229. 
Cableway  skidder,  power  logging,  single  cal)le,  221. 

slack  puller  for,  218,  219*. 
steel  spar,  215*,  216. 
tail  trees  for,  216,  223,  226. 
trolleys,  217,  219*,  222,  224,  226. 
Cableway  system,  power  skidding,  214. 

adaptability,  215. 

capacity,  223,  225,  228. 

crew  for,  223. 

duplex  aerial,  226,  227*,  228*. 

head  spar  trees  for,  216,  218*. 

Lidgerwood,  215,  215*,  217. 

loading  logs  with,  371,  371*. 

logging  radius,  220,  225,  226. 

MacFarlane,  223,  224*. 

mountain,  221. 

North  Bend,  225,  225*. 


INDEX  535 

Cablcway  system,  power  skiddiiif;,  Xortliwcst  214. 

operation,  219,  221,  224,  226,  228. 
regions  in  which  used,  214. 
relay  system,  221,  222*. 
California,  aerial  tramway  in,  260. 
flumes  in,  436. 

log  car  unloading  device  used  in,  379. 
logging  with  wheeled  vehicles  in  189,  192. 
towing  log  rafts  to,  427. 
traction  engine  used  in,  197*. 
Camp,  air  space  of,  76. 

blacksmith  shop,  63. 
boarding  department,  71. 

crew,  71. 
buildings,  62. 

size  of,  64. 
car,  69,  70. 

advantages  of,  69. 
Oregon  operation,  70. 
Colorado,  28. 
construction  of,  61,  66. 
cook  shanty,  62. 

equipment  for,  521. 
cypress,  33,  61,  70*,  71. 
early  type,  60. 
floating,  61,  70*,  71. 
hauling  supplies  to,  73. 
hygiene,  73. 
Lake  States,  30. 
location  of,  60,  61. 
Northeast,  29. 
Northwest,  34. 
portable,  6.5,  66*. 

character  of,  65. 
moving,  66. 
size,  66. 
railroad  operation,  61. 
rations,  72. 

sanitary  service,  73,  80. 
sites  for,  60. 

southern  vellow  pine,  32,  65. 
store,  62,  65,  71. 
storehouse,  63. 
West  Virginia,  35. 
Canada,  log  (carrier  usetl  in,  398. 

log  driving  comr)any  in  New  Brunswick,  408. 
log  sorting  device  used  in,  405. 
rafting  logs  in,  421. 
Canals,  pullboat  logging,  233. 
Cant  hook,  96,  96*. 
Caps,  high  (>xplosivc,  308,  309*. 
Car  cam]),  (i9. 
Carriers,  log,  398. 
Cars,  animal  draft,  278. 

broad  gauge  railroad,  353. 
capacity,  354,  355,  356. 
dump,  movement  of  earth  with,  299. 
flat,  353. 

chains  for,  354. 
stakes  for,  353. 


536  INDEX 

Cars,  frictional  resistance  of,  347. 

loading  logs  on,  by  crosshaul,  360. 

by  power  loaders,  360,  360*. 
by  special  devices,  366. 
logging  trucks,  355,  356*. 
movement  of  earth  with,  302. 
narrow  gauge,  282,  352. 
number  required,  357,  358. 
pole  tram  road,  280. 
skeleton,  354,  355*. 
stakes  for,  353. 
stringer  railroad,  282. 
unloading  log,  372. 
Carts,  log,  185,  187*,  188*. 
Caterpillar  tractor,  204. 
Cattle  guards,  322. 
Cedar,  Port  Orford,  14. 

saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
western  red,  7. 

saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  13. 

regional,  7,  9,  10. 
United  States,  7. 
white,  buoyancy  of,  413. 
Central  States,  forest  area,  3. 
Chain  boom,  400,  401. 
Chains,  log  car,  354. 

log  sleds,  159,  174. 
log  wagon,  193. 
Channels,  artificial,  for  improving  stream  beds,  399,  399* 
Cherry,  20. 

buoyancy  of,  413. 
Chestnut,  7,"  18. 

buoyancy  of,  413. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  18. 
saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  18. 
by  regions,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
Chock  blocks,  log  car,  354. 
Chokers,  animal  skidding,  150,  151*. 

power  skidding,  242. 
Chutes,  log,  262,  269*,  270. 
Clearing  right-of-way,  railroad,  293. 
Climax  geared  locomotive,  343,  343*. 
Coal,  locomotive,  349,  350. 
Coastal  Plain  region,  animal  logging  in,  145. 
carts  for  logging,  185. 
hand  logging  in,  144. 
mule  carts  used  in,  190. 
rafting  logs  in,  425,  425*. 
Colorado,  portable  mill  operations  in,  27. 
Columl)ia  River,  rafting  logs  on,  427. 
Connecticut  River,  log  drive  on,  418. 
Contract  logging  (see  logging,  contract). 
Contracts,  logging,  48. 

"gipo,"  49. 
"log  cutting,"  48. 
Cook  house,  camp,  63. 
Coppice,  best  felling  season  for,  99. 
Corduroy,  167,  319. 
Cordwood,  26. 


INDEX  537 


Cottonwood,  7,  20. 

lumber  cut,  1919,  20. 

saw  timber,  stand,  i:)y  regions,  7. 

United  States,  7. 
saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
Crew,  backspiking,  railroad  track,  327. 
construction,  flume,  446. 

ocean-going  rafts,  428. 
felling  and  log-making,  Colorado,  28. 
floating  and  rafting  logs,  415,  418,  427. 
loading  log  cars,  crosshaul,  360. 
log  drive,  418. 
rafting  logs,  427. 
sorting  logs,  405. 
steel  laying  and  lifting,  326. 
surfacing,  railroad,  331. 
Cribs,  for  storage  booms,  404. 
Cribwork,  logging  railroad,  319. 
Crosshaul,  decking  logs  with,  137*,  138,  141. 
loading,  log  cars,  360,  360*. 
motor  trucks,  202. 
sleds,  174. 
wagons,  194. 
Crossties,  322,  325. 

hewed,  22,  26. 
Crotch  sled,  157. 
Cucumber,  20. 

buoyancy  of,  413. 
Culverts,  logging  railroad,  314*,  321,  321*. 
Cumberland  River  log  drives,  per  cent  of  logs  lost  on,  384. 
Curves,  flume,  444. 

railroad,  288,  291. 
slide,  272. 
Cuts  and  fills,  294. 
Cutting  areas,  timber  felling,  104. 
Cypress,  blasting  stumps  of,  311. 
buoyancy  of,  413. 
deadening  of,  100. 
girdling,  100. 
insect  damage  to,  100. 
logging,  33. 

labor,  54. 
log  lengths,  110. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  12. 
ownership  of,  5. 
raft,  424,  424*. 

sawtimber,  stand,  per  acre,  11. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
yellow,  13. 


D 

Dams,  logging,  389. 

concrete,  389. 
construction  of,  390,  391. 
crib,  390. 
cribwork  for,  391. 


538  INDEX 


Dams,  logging,  pier,  399. 
pile,  392. 

rafter  or  self-loading,  391. 
roll,  389. 

self-loading  or  rafter,  391. 
sites  for,  388. 

sluice  gates  for,  393,  393*,  394*,  396*,  397* 
types  of,  389. 
Davis  ocean-going  log  raft,  429,  429*. 
Deadening  timber,  100. 
Decker  log  loader,  363,  364*. 
Decking  logs,  137*,  138. 
Defects,  log,  crook  or  sweep,  113. 
crotches  or  forks,  113. 
sweep  or  crook,  113. 
Depreciation,  barns,  canvas,  67. 
camp  cars,  69. 
motor  truck  roads,  202. 
slide,  pole,  266. 
steam  log  hauler,  180. 
railroad,  stringer,  282. 
tractors,  208. 
two-sleds,  163, 
Dogs,  logging,  151,  151*. 
Dog- warp,  415. 
Douglas  fir  {see  fir,  Douglas). 
Draft  power,  animal,  129. 
Drill,  churn,  305. 
hand,  306. 
jumper,  305. 
Drilling  rock,  304. 

Drive,  log,  alligator  for  towing  logs,  417. 
boom  companies,  408. 
conduct  of  a,  408,  414. 
floating  and  rafting  logs,  383. 
headworks  for  towing  logs,  416,  416*. 
improvement  of  stream  beds  and  Ijanks,  398. 
labor  on,  413. 
large  streams,  417. 
log  carriers  used  in  Canada  on,  398. 
picking  rear,  416,  418. 
requirements  for  a  driveable  stream,  387. 
St.  John's  River,  421. 
season,  407,  414. 
small  streams,  414. 

sorting  and  storage  facilities  for  a,  402. 
storage  reservoirs,  388. 
union,  408. 
Driveable  stream,  requirements  for,  387. 
Drivers,  log,  413. 
Drumming,  149. 
Dry  rooms,  logging  camps,  78. 
Dudley,  340. 

Dump,  log,  375,  376*,  378*. 
Dunnage  road,  317*,  318. 
Duplex  aerial  cableway  system,  226. 
Dust  road,  317*,  318. 
Dynamite,  l)lasting  rock  with,  .'^06. 

l)lasting  stumps  with,  311. 
breaking  down  landings  with,  415. 


INDEX  539 


Dynamite,  caps  for  firing,  308. 
care  of,  307. 
electric  firing  of,  309. 
loosening  earth  with,  298. 
springing  holes  with,  311. 
strength  of,  306. 


Earth,  angle  of  repo.se,  294. 

bulk  of,  when  disturbed,  297. 
classification  of,  for  excavation,  296. 
"free  haul"  in  grading  contracts,  296. 
hauling,  in  cars,  302. 

drag  scrapers,  301. 
dump  carts,  299. 
dump  wagons,  300. 
loosening  with  dynamite,  298. 
measurement  of,  296. 
movement  of,  in  cars,  animal  draft,  302. 
pick  work,  298. 
picking  and  shoveling,  298. 
plowing,  297. 
scrapers,  301. 
shovels,  steam,  303. 
wagons,  dump,  300. 
wheelbarrows,  299. 
wheeled  scrapers,  301. 
Efficiency,  labor,  51. 
Electric  drive,  252. 
Elm,  20. 

buovancy  of,  413. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  20. 
Eminent  domain,  right  of,  for  a  logging  railroad,  286. 
Engines,  traction,  capacity,  196,  198. 
four-wheeled,  196. 
fuel  requirements,  196,  197. 
three-wheeled,  196,  197*. 
wagon  haul,  190,  197*. 
Equipment,  railroad,  rolling  stock  and  motive  power,  356. 
.snaking,  149. 
wagon  haul,  193. 
Excavation,  rock,  304. 

blasting,  304. 
drilling,  304. 
explosive.s  for,  306. 
Explosives,  high,  306. 
low,  310. 


Faller,  tree,  94,  94*. 

Falling  ax,  82,  83. 

Fantailing,  pullboat  logging,  233,  234*. 

Fastenings,  rail,  324,  325. 

Feeding  standards,  Wolff-Lehmann,  525. 

Feeding  stuff.s,  ingredients  in,  .526. 

Fees  for  catching  runaway  logs,  385. 


540  INDEX 


Felling  and  log-making,  one-man  hours  required  for,  54. 

season  of,  98,  99. 
Felling  timber,  bonus  for,  47. 

breakage  in,  101. 
crews,  100,  102,  103,  104. 
cutting  areas,  104. 
direction  of  fall,  100. 
kerosene,  use  of,  97. 
kilhig  or  sampson,  use  of,  93,  93*. 
methods,  26,  28,  29,  31,  32,  33,  34,  36. 
notching,  105,  105*. 
power  machines  for,  90. 
Fills  and  cuts,  ratio  of  slope  for,  294. 

width  of,  295. 
Fin  boom,  400,  401*. 
Fir,  Douglas,  buoyancy  of,  413. 

cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  8G,  86*. 
logging,  one-man  hours  required  for,  54. 
log  lengths,  110. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  8. 
stand,  per  acre,  8. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
silver,  resistance  of  wood  to  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 
Firs,  true,  saw  timber,  stand,  regional,  7. 

United  States,  7. 
Fish  plates,  324,  324*. 
Flat  cars,  logging,  353. 
Floating  camps,  71. 
Floating  logs,  30,  32,  33,  34,  37,  383. 
Floods,  loss  of  logs  from,  385. 
Flumes,  433. 

advantages  of,  433. 
backbone,  for  433. 
box,  436. 

capacity,  434,  436,  445,  450,  452. 
construction  of,  445,  452. 
curves  for,  444,  444*. 
disadvantages,  433. 
grades  for,  445,  451. 
location  of,  442. 

material  required  to  construct,  447,  448. 
Northeast,  30. 
Northwest,  35. 
operation  of,  447,  451. 
terminals,  441,  441*,  443*. 
trestles  for,  438,  439*,  440*. 
V-box,  434,  435*,  437*. 
Force,  tractive,  locomotives,  346. 
Fore-and-aft  roads,  268,  268*. 
Forest  area.  United  States,  3. 
Forest  labor,  41. 
Forest  regions,  United  States,  3. 
Forked  trees,  waste  in  log-making,  113,  114*. 
Frog,  railroad,  325,  326*. 
Fuel,  power  logging,  coal,  250. 
locomotive,  349. 
oil,  2.50. 
wood,  250. 
Fuse,  blasting,  electric,  309. 
safetv,  308. 


INDEX  541 


Gap,  assorting,  403*,  405,  405*,  406*. 
Garbage,  camp,  disposal  of,  75. 
Gate,  flume,  451. 

logging  dam,  barn  door,  397. 

bear  trap,  394,  394*. 
bracket,  395,  397*. 
half-moon,  395,  396*. 
lift,  393,  393*. 
needle,  395,  397*. 
Gauge,  narrow,  285. 

railroad,  choice  of,  285. 
saw,  84. 

sled,  159,  161,  181. 
standard,  285. 
widening  on  curves,  330. 
Geared  locomotives,  advantages  of,  342. 
center  shaft,  343. 
CUmax,  343,  343*. 
Heisler,  344,  344*. 
Shay,  345,  345*. 
side  shaft,  345. 
Willamette,  345. 
Gill-poke,  unloading  logs  with,  377. 
Gin-pole,  loading,  log  cars,  366. 

motor  trucks,  202. 
Gipo  logging,  49. 
Girdling  timber,  100. 
Go-devil,  157,  157*. 
Gooseneck,  two-sled,  163. 
Goo.seneck  or  scotch,  log  slide,  274,  274*. 
Grab,  maul,  152,  152*. 

.skidding,  150,  151*. 
skipper,  152,  152*. 
Grading,' railroad,  293. 

Gravity,  resistance  of  load  to,  logging  railroad,  347. 
Ground,  bare,  effect  on  skidding  output,  153. 
Ground  yarding,  239. 
Guards,  cattle,  322. 

Gum  and  cypress  logging,  one-man  hours  required  for,  54. 
Gum,  buovancv  of,  413. 

red,' lumber  cut,  1920,  18. 

saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  18. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
Gumbo,  loosening  with  djTiamite,  298. 
Gun  stick,  94,  95*. 
Guy-line  loading,  370,  370*. 

H 

Half-moon  gate  logging  dam,  395,  396*. 
Hand  logging,  144. 

Handles,  logging  tool,  82,  83,  84,  84*,  96. 
Hardpan,  classification  of.  296. 
Hardwood,  buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 

damage,  fungi,  99. 
insects,  98. 

log  lengths,  110. 

logging,  one-man  hours  required  for,  54. 

loss  in  transport,  384. 


542  INDEX 


Hardwood,  lumber  cut,  1919,  17. 
ownership  of,  5. 
preparation  for  floating,  412. 
season  for  felling,  99. 

strength,  influence  of  cutting  season  on,  99. 
volume,  by  regions,  4. 
Haulers,  log,  gasoline,  180. 

steam,  178,  179*. 
Hauling  ability  of  locomotives,  346. 
Hauling,  carts,  185. 

motor  trucks,  198. 
road  engine,  245. 
sled,  173. 

steam  log  hauler,  178. 
traction  engine,  196. 
tractors,  209. 
wagons,  194. 
Headspar,  cableway  skidder,  216,  218*,  223,  226. 
Headworks,  towing,  416,  416*. 
Heisler  geared  locomotive,  344,  344*. 
Hemlock,  buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 

eastern,  lumber  cut,  1919,  10. 

saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  10. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
western,  lumber  cut,  1919,  11. 

saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  10. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
Hickory,  buoyancy  of,  413. 

lumber  cut,  1919,  20. 
saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  19. 
'  regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
High-lead  yarding,  243. 
Hook,  cant,  96,  96*. 
Horses,  advantages  of,  131. 

hauling  log  wagons,  194. 
miles  traveled  daily,  178,  195. 
picking  rear  on  a  log  drive  with,  416. 
rations  for,  132,  528. 
regions  in  which  used,  131. 
use  in  cableway  skidding,  221. 
slide  operation,  273. 
snaking,  145. 
snaking  system,  230. 
water  requirements,  134. 
weight  of,  131. 
Hours,  one-man,  required  in  logging,  54. 
House,  portable,  material  for,  66. 

bath,  sanitary  regulations  for,  78. 
bunk,  sanitary  regulations  for,  77. 
Hydraulic  machines,  inchne,  338,  338*. 
Hygiene,  camp,  73. 

I 

Idaho,  log  flume  in,  434. 

log  slides  in,  263*,  264*,  265*. 
pole  tram  roads  in,  281. 


INDEX  543 


Improvement  of  stream  beds  and  banks,  398. 
Inclines,  cables  for,  335,  336,  337. 

capacity,  336,  337,  339. 

counterbalanced,  337. 

dudleys  for,  340. 

hydraulic  lowering  device  for,  338. 

lowering  logs  on,  336,  339. 

one-cable,  335. 

one-way,  334. 

snubbing  machines  for,  338. 

two-cable,  336. 

West  Virginia,  37. 
Insect  damage,  cypress,  100. 

felled  timber,  98. 


Jack  works,  372. 

Jacks,  loading,  367. 

Jammers,  horse,  174. 

Jams,  log,  on  streams,  415,  417. 

Jumbo  sled,  161. 


K 

Kentucky,  legal  fee  for  catching  stray  logs  on  streams  in,  385. 

Kerosene,  use  in  felling  timber,  97. 

Kilhig  or  sampson,  93,  93*. 

Kitchens,  camp,  sanitary  regulations  for,  80. 


"L"  hook,  273,  273*. 
Labor,  41. 

camp  hygiene,  73. 
camps  for,  60. 
character,  42. 
contract,  48. 
cypress  region,  33. 
efficiency  of,  51. 
employment  of,  41,  42. 
Lake  States,  30. 
log  driving,  413. 
medical  attention  for,  58. 
Northeast,  29. 
Northwest,  34. 
southern  pine  region,  32. 
unions,  .53. 

wages,  factors  which  influence,  50. 
West  Virginia,  35. 
Lake  States,  boom  companies  in,  408. 

carts,  log,  use  of,  31. 

forest  area,  3. 

labor,  30. 

logging  methods,  early,  23. 

logs,  per  cent  lost  on  drives,  385. 
raising  sunken,  430. 

ownership  of  timber  in,  5. 


544  INDEX 

Lake  States,  saw  timber,  area  of,  4. 
species,  7. 
volume,  4. 
Landings,  "breaking  down",  415. 
car  loading  at,  366,  368. 
water  transport,  140,  181. 
Larch,  buoyancy  of,  413. 

re.sistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 
Latrines,  camp,  sanitary  regulations  for,  78. 
Legislation,  Workmen's  Compensation,  57. 
Lengths,  log,  cypress,  110. 

Lake  States,  110. 
Northeast,  110. 
Northwest,  110. 
South,  110. 
Lidgerwood  cableway  skidder,  215,  215*. 
Liens,  log,  50. 
Limber  boom,  400. 
Lizard,  158. 

Loaders,  horse,  for  sleds,  174. 
power,  360. 

Barnhart,  361. 
capacity,  366. 
Decker;  363,  364*. 
gin-pole,  366. 
McGiffert,  364,  365*. 
Model  "C"  American,  362*,  363. 
Model  "D"  American,  363. 
overhead,  367,  368*,  369,  370*. 
Rapid,  363,  363*. 
Surry  Parker,  365. 
swinging-boom,  370,  371*. 
Loading,  cableway  skidder,  370*,  371*. 
crosshaul,  360. 
devices  for,  366. 
flumes,  450. 

from  water  storage,  372. 
guv-line  system,  370,  370*. 
hand,  367. 
jack,  367. 
jack  works,  372. 
jammers,  174. 
motor  trucks,  202. 
portable  houses,  66. 
power,  360. 
sleds,  174. 

snaking  system,  232. 
special  devices  for,  366. 
wagons,  194. 
Location,  flumes,  442. 

railroads,  287. 
Locomotives,  dragging  logs  with,  249. 
fuel  for,  349. 
geared,  342. 

hauling  ability,  346,  348. 
number  required,  357,  358. 
resistance,  frictional,  347. 
rod,  341. 

tractive  force,  346. 
water  for,  352. 


INDEX  545 


Log  barge,  430. 
booms,  399. 
brands,  409. 
carriers,  398. 

tractor  logging,  209. 
carts,  185,  187*,  188*. 
decking,  137*,  138. 
drive,  407,  408,  414,  417, 
dumps,  375,  376*,  378*. 
flumes,  433. 
haulers,  gasoline,  180. 

steam,  178,  179*. 
lengths,  110. 
loaders,  power,  360. 
marks  and  brands,  409,  410*. 

property  rights  in,  411. 
registration  of,  411. 
sluices,  433,  435*,  437. 
storage,  136,  373. 
Logging,  cars,  282,  352. 

contracts,  24,  25,  48. 
dams,  389. 
Colorado,  27. 
cypress,  33. 
gipo,  49. 
hand,  144. 

industry,  character  of,  22. 
products  of,  22. 
labor,  29,  30,  32,  33,  34,  35. 
Lake  States,  30. 
New  England,  25. 
Northeast,  28. 
Northwest,  34. 
operations,  early,  22. 
organization  of,  55,  56. 
portable  mill,  24. 
power,  23,  214. 

electrical,  252. 
railroads,  23,  278. 
regions,  earlv,  5. 

season,  25,  27,  28,  30,  32,  33,  34,  35. 
southern  yellow  pine,  32. 
West  Virginia,  35. 
Log-making,  bole,  extent  of  utilization,  108. 
equipment  for,  82. 
felling  and  log-making,  98. 
hours,  one-man,  required  for,  54. 
log  lengths,  110. 
measuring  sticks  for,  95. 
methods,  110. 

power  bucking,  90,  112. 
season,  98. 

southern  yellow  pine,  32. 
trimming  lengths,  114. 
organization  of  crews  for,  100. 
waste  in,  113,  114*. 
Logs,  buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 
floating  and  rafting,  383. 
end  checking  of,  100. 
liens  on,  50. 


546  INDEX 


Logs,  prize,  411. 
saw,  22,  108. 
sunken,  430. 

ownership  of,  411. 
salvaging  of,  430. 
Lower  Mississippi  region,  forest  area,  3. 

saw  timber,  area,  4. 

species,  7. 

volume,  4 

Loyal  Legion  of  Loggers  and  Lumbermen,  56. 


camp  sanitary  regulations  of,  77. 


M 


MacFarlane  cablewav  system,  223,  224*. 
McGiffert  log  loader,  364,  365*. 
Maine,  log  l)rands  and  marks  in,  410. 

paper  birch,  preparation  for  floating,  412. 

steam  log  hauler  record  in,  1S2. 
Maintenance  of  wav,  railroad,  332. 
Mallet  articulated  locomotive,  341. 
Maple,  buovancv  of,  412,  413. 

lumber  cut,  1920,  18. 

resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 

saw  timber,  stand,  regional,  7. 

United  States,  7. 
Marks,  log,  409,  410*. 

property  rights  in,  411. 
registration  of,  411. 
Maul,  grab,  152,  152*. 
Mauls,  92. 

Measuring  sticks,  log-making,  95. 
Meat  house,  sanitary  regulations  for,  79. 
Medical  attention,  logging  camps,  58. 
Michigan,  sunken  logs,  raising,  430. 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  forest  area,  3. 

saw  timber,  area,  4. 

species,  7. 
volume,  4. 
Mine  timbers,  transport  in  flumes,  441. 
Minnesota,  validity  of  log  marks  in,  411. 
Mississippi  River,  boom  companies  on,  408. 

log  loss  on  drives  on,  384,  385. 
log  marks  used  on,  410,  410*. 
rafting  logs  on,  419*,  422,  423*. 
Model  "C"  American  log  loader,  362*,  363. 
Model  "D"  American  log  loader,  363. 
Monorail  system,  assorting  and  storing  logs  with,  379. 
Montana,  logs  lost  on  drives  in,  384. 
Motive  power,  logging  railroads,  341. 
Motor  trucks  (see  trucks,  motor). 
Mud  siUs,  dam,  390. 
Mule  carts,  190. 
Mules,  advantages  of,  132. 

hauling  with,  189,  191,  195. 

power  logging,  use  in,  230. 

rations  for,  132. 

water  requirements,  134. 

weight  of,  132. 


INDEX  547 


N 


Nails,  amounts  required  to  construct  flumes,  447,  448. 
Narrow  gauge  railroad,  advantages  of,  285. 

cars  for,  352. 
Needle  or  bracket  gate,  sluice,  395,  397*. 
New  Brunswick,  log  driving  companies  in,  408. 
log  sorting  device  in,  405. 
rafting  logs  in,  421,  422*. 
New  England,  forest  area,  3. 

logging,  portable  mill,  24,  25. 
saw  timber,  area,  4. 

species,  7. 
voliune,  4. 
North  Bend  cableway  system,  225,  255*. 
North  Carolina,  power  logging  in,  214. 
Northeast,  camps,  logging,  60. 
chutes  used  in,  270. 
crews,  felling,  102. 
felling  and  log-making,  29,  102. 
haulers,  log,  used  in,  178. 
labor,  42. 

loading  sleds  in,  174. 
log  lengths,  110. 
logging  methods,  23,  28. 
portable  mill  operations  in,  24. 
rafting  logs  in,  421,  422*. 

sleds  and  sled  hauling  in,  158,  159*,  161,  162* 
Northwest,  aerial  tramways  in,  256. 
camps,  car,  69. 
chutes,  270. 

development  of  logging  in,  24. 
felling  and  log-making,  34,  106. 
floating  and  rafting,  407,  426,  427. 
forest  area,  3. 
hand  logging,  144. 
labor,  34,  42,  43,  54,-  55. 
log  lengths,  110. 
logging  methods,  34. 
power,  bucking,  112. 

skidding,  214,  223,  225,  239,  243. 
rafting,  ocean,  427. 

Puget  Sound,  426. 
saws  used  in,  85,  85*. 
saw  timber,  area,  4. 

species,  7. 
volume,  4. 
slides,  log,  268,  270,  275. 
unloading  log  cars,  374. 
yarding  logs  in,  215,  223,  225,  239,  243. 
Notching  timber,  105,  105*. 

O 

Oak,  buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 
chestnut,  peeling  of,  99. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  17. 
resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 
saw  timber,  stand,  regional,  7. 

United  States,  7. 
white,  saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 


548  INDEX 


Occupations,  logging,  59. 
Ocean  rafting,  427. 
Ohio  River,  rafting  logs  on,  421. 
Overhead  systems,  loading,  367. 
logging,  214. 
Oxen,  advantages  of,  130. 

rations  for,  133,  529. 

regions  in  which  used,  130. 

weight  of,  130. 


Pacific  Coast  (see  Northwest). 
Pacific  Ocean,  rafting  on,  427. 
Peavey,  96,  96*. 

loading  cars  with,  367. 
Pennsylvania,  logging  methods,  early,  23. 
Pick  rear,  416,  418. 
Pick  work,  in  earth,  298. 
Pickaroon,  97. 
Piece  work,  bonus  system  for,  43. 

payment  on  basis  of,  43. 
premiums,  general  rules  for,  45. 
standard  of,  45. 
Piers  for  stream  improvements,  402,  403,  403*. 
Pike  poles,  415. 
Pile  dam,  392. 

Pine,  eastern  white,  buoyancy  of,  413. 
log  lengths,  110. 
logs,  sunken,  430. 
lumljer  cut,  1920,  10. 
logging,  labor  required,  54. 
owTiership  of,  5. 
saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
stand,  per  acre,  9. 

United  States,  7. 
Jeffrey,  saw  timber,  stand,  regional,  7. 

United  States,  7. 
loblolly,  o\\-nership  of,  5. 
lodgepole,  lumber  cut,  1919,  15. 

saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  15. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
Scotch,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 
southern,  21. 

southern  yellow,  blasting  stumps  of,  311. 
buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 
logging,  32. 

labor  required,  54. 
log  lengths,  110. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  9. 
saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  14. 

regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
sugar,  lumber  cut,  1919,  14. 

saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  14. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 


INDEX 

Pine,  western  white,  lumber  cut,  1919,  10. 

saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  10. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
western  j^ellow,  lumber  cut,  1920,  9. 

saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  9. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
Plates,  fish,  324,  324*. 
Plowing  earth,  output  per  hour,  297. 
Plug  boom,  400. 
Pockets,  rafting,  426. 
Pole  railroad,  278. 
Pole,  pike,  415. 
Poles,  cutting,  26. 

rafting,  420*,  421,  421*,  423*. 
Poplar,  yellow,  buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  17. 

resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 
saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  17. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
Portable  house  camp,  65,  66*. 
Potter,  175. 
Powder,  black,  310. 
Power,  animal  draft,  129. 

bucking  machines,  90. 
felling  machines,  90. 
loaders,  360. 
Power  skidding,  214. 

cableway,  215. 
electric  drive,  252. 
fuel  for,  249. 

relation  to  forest  management,  125. 
slack-rope,  232. 
snaking,  229. 

spark  arresters  for,  251,  251*. 
Power  unloaders,  374. 

Primers  and  priming,  high  explosive,  308,  309  . 
Prize  logs,  411. 
Puget  Sound,  rafting  on,  426. 
PuUboats,  canals  for,  233. 
crews  for,  237. 
"fantailing,"  233,  234*. 
operation  of,  235. 
output,  238. 

preparation  of  logs  for  skidding,  236. 
Pulpwood,  22,  110,  117,  434. 

R 

Raft,  bundles,  425,  425*. 
Davis,  429,  429*. 
log,  cvpress,  424,  424*. 
Great  Lakes,  420. 
Mississippi  River,  419*,  422,  423*. 
poles  for  fastening  a,  420*,  421,  421*,  423*. 
New  Brunswick,  421. 
Northwest,  426. 


549 


550  INDEX 

Raft,  ocean,  427. 

Ohio  River,  421. 
Rafter  or  .self-loading  dam,  391,  392*,  393*. 
Rafting,  dogs,  420,  420*. 
logs,  383. 
pockets,  426. 

poles,  420*,  421,  421*,  423*. 
stream,  419,  419*. 
works,  407,  426. 
Rail  slides,  270. 

Railroad,  advantages  of  rail  transport,  283. 
chartered,  286. 
choice  of  gauge,  285. 
construction  of,  293,  313,  331. 
crossties  for,  322,  325. 
culverts  for,  314*,  321,  321*. 
dunnage  or  dust,  317*,  318. 
forest,  278. 
grades  for,  288. 
inclines  on,  334. 
location  of,  287. 
locomotives  for,  341. 
logging,  23,  30,  31,  33,  34,  35,  36. 
maintenance  of  wav  on,  332. 
pole  road,  278,  279*,  280*. 
rights-of-way,  286. 
steel  laying  and  lifting,  326. 
stringer,  281. 
Rails,  bending  of,  327. 
elevation  of,  330. 
expansion  of,  327. 
fastenings  for,  324,  324*. 
guard,  315. 

laying  and  lifting,  326. 
resistance  of,  to  friction,  347. 
steel,  323,  323*,  325. 
stringer  road,  282. 
weight  of,  324,  325. 
Rapid  log  loader,  363,  363*. 
Rations,  animal,  132,  528. 

logging  camp,  72,  74. 

list  of,  74. 
waste  of,  72. 
Red  gum  (see  gum,  red). 
Redwood,  buoyancy  of,  412,  413. 
log  lengths,  110. 
logging,  labor  required  for,  54. 
lumber  cut,  1920,  11. 
rossing  logs,  117. 
saw  timber,  stand,  per  acre,  11. 
regional,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
Regulations,  sanitary,  for  logging  camps,  77. 
Re-haul  skidder,  238. 
Reservoirs,  storage,  388. 

Resistance,  frictional,  on  a  logging  railroad,  347. 
Right-of-way,  logging  railroad,  286,  293. 
Riparian  owners,  complications  with,  on  log  drives,  386. 
Road  engine,  248. 


INDEX  551 

Reading,  245,  246,  248. 
Roads,  dunnage,  317*,  318. 

fore-and-aft  pole,  268,  268*. 

motor  truck,  200. 

pole,  278. 

puUboat,  234,  234*. 

rail,  278. 

skid,  148,  249. 

skipper,  147,  148*. 

sled,  164,  164*,  165. 

stringer  rail,  281. 

tractor,  resLstance  on,  211,  212. 

wagon,  193. 
Rock,  blasting,  304. 

classification  of,  296. 
excavation  of,  304. 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  forest  area,  3. 

saw  timber,  stand,  area,  4. 

volume,  4. 
Rod  locomotives,  341. 
Rolling  stock,  logging  railroad,  341. 
Rolhvays  for  unloading  log  cars,  372,  373*. 
Ro.ssing,  116. 
Rut  cutter,  172,  172*. 

S 

Sack  boom,  420. 
Safety  laws,  logging,  .58. 
Sampson  or  kilhig,  93,  93" 
Sanitation,  camp,  75,  80. 
Saw,  blade  of,  84,  85*,  89*. 
felling  timber  with,  106. 
fitting,  86,  88. 

tools,  86. 
gauge  of,  84. 
handles  for,  84,  84*. 
length,  84. 
life  of,  89. 
rakers,  85,  87. 
set,  87. 

teeth,  85,  85*,  89*. 
Scotch,  log  slide,  274,  274*. 
Scrapers,  drag,  301,  303. 
Self-loading  dam,  .391,  393*. 
Shay  locomotive,  345,  345*. 
Sheep-shank  boom,  400. 
Shovels,  movement  of  earth  with,  298. 

steam,  303. 
Skeleton  cars,  354,  355*. 
Skid  roads,  148,  249. 
Skidding,  bonus  for,  43. 

cablewav,  34,  214,  215*,  217*,  218*,  219*,  220*,  224*,  225*. 

Colorado,  28. 

crews,  153. 

cypress,  33. 

double  trees  for,  149. 

grabs  for,  150,  151*. 

J-hook  for,  151,  151*. 

labor  required  for,  54. 


652  INDEX 


Skidding,  Lake  States,  31. 

New  England,  26,  29. 
Northwest,  34. 

power,  relation  to  forest  management,  125. 
pullboat,  33,  233. 
southern  yellow  pine,  32. 
spreaders  for,  149,  150*. 
West  Virginia,  36. 
Skids,  balanced,  for  loading  aerial  tramways,  256. 
fender,  timber  slide,  263. 
hardwood,  for  log  wagon,  193. 
Skidways,  136,  137*,  139*,  140*,  141*. 
capacity,  139. 

loading  logs  from,  141,  142,  174. 
railroad  haul,  141,  141*. 
sled  haul,  136,  137*. 
wagon  haul,  141,  191*. 
Skipper,  grab,  152,  152*. 
road,  147,  148*. 
Slack  puller,  cableway  .skidder,  218,  219. 
Slack-rope  system,  power  logging,  232,  233,  238,  239,  243. 
Sledge,  92. 

Sleds,  157,  157*,  159*,  162*,  181*. 
bob,  161. 

chains  for,  160,  175. 
go-devil,  157,  157*. 
hauling  with,  173. 
jumbo,  161. 
lizard,  158. 
loading,  174. 

roads  for,  164,  164*,  165,  165*. 
scoot,  26. 
two-sled,  161,  162*. 

chains  for,  174. 
yarding,  158,  159*. 
Slide,  timber,  262,  262*,  263*,  264,  264*,  265*,  266*,  267*. 

trail,  263. 
Slides,  log,  brake  for,  275. 
capacity  of,  275. 
checking  speed  on,  274,  275. 
construction  of,  263,  264,  267,  271. 
curves  on,  272. 
earth,  263. 
grades  on,  271. 
life  of,  266. 
maintenance  of,  277. 
operation  of,  273. 
rail,  270. 

sawed  timber,  266*,  267,  267*. 
snubbing  device  for,  275,  276*. 
Slope,  effect  on  felling  output,  102. 

effect  on  skidding  output,  153,  154,  155. 
Sluice  gates,  393. 
Sluice,  log,  433,  437. 
Snaking,  animal,  145,  146*,  147*,  148*. 

equipment  for,  149,  150*,  151*,  152*. 
power,  229,  230*. 
Sniping  logs,  117. 

Snow,  effect  on  skidding  output,  154,  155. 
Snow  plows,  171. 


INDEX  553 


Snow  shed,  170,  170*. 
Snubbing  device,  165,  176,  176*,  177*. 
log  slide,  275,  276*. 
motor  truck,  202. 
Snubbing  machine,  hydrauHc,  338,  338*. 
Softwoods,  eastern,  saw  timber,  stand,  regional,  7. 

species,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
western,  saw  timber,  stand,  regional,  7. 
species,  7. 
United  States,  7. 
Sorting  gap,  405. 
Sorting  logs,  402. 
South  Atlantic  States,  forest  area,  3. 

saw  timber,  stand,  species,  7. 
volume,  7. 
Southern  pine  region,  camps,  65,  66*. 

felling  and  log-making,  32,  101. 
labor,  32,  54. 
log  lengths,  110. 
logging  methods,  32. 
Spark  arresters,  251,  251*,  351,  352*. 
Spars,  cablevvay,  216,  219. 
Spikes,  railroad,  325. 
Spiking,  back,  327. 
Spreader,  149,  150*. 
Spring  board,  92,  92*. 
Sprinkler  for  a  sled  road,  172,  175*. 
Spruce,  buoyancy  of,  413. 

eastern,  lumber  cut,  1919,  13. 

stand  per  acre,  13. 
Engelmann,  stand  per  acre,  16. 
log  lengths,  110. 

resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86. 
rossing,  116. 
saw  timber,  stand,  regional,  7. 

United  States,  7. 
saw  tooth  patterns  for,  85,  85*. 
Sitka,  stand  per  acre,  16. 
western,  lumber  cut,  1919,  16. 
stand  per  acre,  16. 
Spur,  logging  railroad,  295,  295*,  317*,  318. 
Stables,  camp,  63,  65,  67,  68*. 
Stakes,  log  car,  353. 
Standard  log  lengths,  110. 
Standards,  feeding,  Wolff-Lehmann,  525. 
Steel  laying  and  lifting,  326. 
Stick,  measuring,  95. 
Storage  booms,  403. 
Storehouse,  camp,  63,  65. 
Streams,  driveable,  requirements  for,  387. 
improvement  of,  398. 
large,  drive  on,  417. 
rafting  on,  419. 
small,  drive  on,  414,  417. 
Stringer  railroad,  281. 

capacity,  281. 
cars  for,  282. 
construction  of,  281. 
disadvantages,  281. 


554  INDEX 


Stringer  railroad,  grades  on,  281. 

maintenance  of,  282. 
rails  for,  281. 
Stump,  blasting,  311. 

heights  of,  107. 
Stumpage,  owaiershij)  of,  4,  5. 
Summary  of  logging  methods,  24. 
Sunken  logs,  411,  430. 
Supervision,  labor  required  for,  54. 
Supplies,  track,  322. 
Surfacing  railroads,  331. 
Surry  Parker  log  loader,  365. 
Sweep,  logs,  113. 
Swinging,  245. 

Swinging-boom  log  loader,  370,  371*. 
Switch,  railroad,  325,  326*. 

sUde,  266. 
Sycamore,  buoyancy  of,  413. 


Tail  tree,  cableway  skidding,  216,  223,  226. 

pullboat  logging,  234. 
Tamping  explosives,  for  rock  blasting,  310. 

for  stump  blasting,  312. 
Tanbark,  peeling,  99. 
Task  system,  payment  of  labor,  48. 
Team  boss,  duties  of,  194. 
Teeth,  cross-cut  saw,  85,  85*,  89*. 
Tennessee  River,  per  cent  of  logs  lost  on,  384. 
Terminals,  flume,  441,  441*,  443*. 
Terms  used  in  logging,  469. 
Timber,  deadening,  100. 
felling,  106. 

saw,  ownership  of,  4,  5. 
volume,  by  regions,  4. 
Timber  slides  and  chutes  (see  slides). 
Timber  work,  railroad  grade,  313. 
Tongs,  animal  skidding,  150,  151*. 

pullboat  skidding,  237. 
Towing  booms,  400,  420. 
Towing  rafts,  421,  422,  424,  426,  429. 
Track  laying  and  lifting,  326. 
Traction  engines,  196,  197*. 
Tractive  force,  locomotives,  346. 
Tractors,  204,  205*,  209*. 
adaptability,  204. 
caterpillar,  for  log  slide  draft,  273. 
crawler,  204,  205*,  207*. 

advantages  of,  206. 
efficiency  of,  211. 
gasoline  consumption  of,  208. 
hauling  with,  211. 
life  of,  208. 

skidding  with,  208,  210. 
speed  of,  211. 
tractive  power  of,  212. 
wheeled,  204. 
Trailers,  motor  truck,  200. 


INDEX  555 


Tramways,  aerial,  35,  255. 

capacity,  256,  257,  259,  261. 
endless  cable,  260. 
gravity,  255. 
hangers  for,  259,  260*. 
single  wire,  256,  257*,  258*. 
trolleys  for,  259,  260*. 
Transportation,  121. 

primary,  126. 
secondary,  123. 
Travois,  157,  157*. 
Tree  faller,  94,  94*. 
Trestle,  flume,  438,  439*,  440*. 
framed,  314,  316,  316*. 
pile,  313,  314*. 
Trolley,  aerial  tramway,  256,  257*,  258*,  259,  260*. 
cablewav  skidder,  217,  219*,  222,  224,  226. 
Truck,  logging,  355,  356*. 
motor,  35,  198. 

adaptability  to  logging,  198. 
capacity,  202. 
loading,  202. 
roads  for,  200. 
trailers  for,  200. 
types,  199. 

use  on  a  stringer  road,  283. 
Tug,  log  towing,  417. 
Turnout,  logging  railroad,  325,  326*. 
Turpentine  ax,  83,  83*. 
Two-sled,  binding  chains  for,  174. 
hauling  with,  161. 
loading,  174. 
roads  for,  165. 


U 

Undercut,  felling,  105. 
Undercutter,  97,^  97*. 
Unions,  labor,  53. 

United  States,  eastern,  timber  ownership  in,  4. 
forest  area,  3. 
timber,  volume  of,  3. 
Unloaders,  power,  374. 
Unloading  log  cars,  360. 

cablewav  system,  375. 
gill-poke,  377. 
hand  methods,  372. 
labor  required,  54. 
log  dump  for,  375,  376*,  378* 
roUwavs  for,  372,  373*. 
motor  trucks,  202. 
wagons,  194. 


Vehicles,  wheeled,  184. 


Wage,  basis  of  payment,  43. 
Wages,  factors  which  influence,  50. 


W 


556  INDEX 


Wagons,  capacity,  195. 

equipment  for,  193. 
log,  eight-wheeled,  192,  193*. 
four-wheeled,  190,  191*. 
hauling  with,  194. 
loading,  194,  195.* 
mule  carts,  190. 
roads  for,  193. 
six-wheeled,  192. 
Wanigan,  414. 
Waste,  felling  and  log-making,  113. 

elimination  of,  47. 
table,  in  logging  camps,  72. 
Water,  camp,  purity  of,  75. 
for  animals,  134. 
for  locomotives,  352. 
Wedges,  91,  91*. 
West  Virginia,  logging  in,  35. 
Western  yellow  pine  (see  pine,  western  yellow). 
Wheelbarrows,  moving  earth  with,  299. 
Wliip-poor-will  switch,  log  slide,  266,  266*. 
Willow,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  86 
Wood  fuel,  logging  349,  350. 
Workmen's  compensation  legislation,  57. 
Works,  rafting,  407. 


Yarding  engine,  crew  for,  242. 

duplex,  226,  227*,  228*. 
Yarding  sled,  158. 

capacity,  160. 

hauling  with,  160. 

roads  for,  164,  164*. 


